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DOE OSTI2021

Catalytic Reduction of Residual Oxygen for the Purification of Carbon Dioxide Streams from Pressurized Oxy-Combustors

Pressurized oxy-combustion (OC) is regarded as an energy-efficient alternative to atmospheric OC. To utilize the captured carbon dioxide (CO2) from pressurized OC for enhanced oil recovery or carbon storage in geological formations, the CO2 product stream must meet the required purity specifications. One major impurity in OC flue gases is residual O2 (e.g., 3 vol%). In this study, a catalytic approach has been investigated to remove the residual O2 through a reduction reaction with injected methane (CH4) in a reverse-flow fixed-bed (RFFB) reactor. The performance was tested for a supported copper (Cu)-based catalyst synthesized by incipient wetness impregnation and a cobalt-manganese (CoMn) oxide catalyst synthesized by a coprecipitation method. A commercial Cu-based catalyst was also studied as the reference. Experimental results revealed that under the reverse-flow operation, the temperature profiles in the reactor were symmetrical on both sides of the catalyst zone and were more homogenous than those under the conventional one-direction-flow operation. Among the tested catalysts, the CoMn catalyst was the most reactive for promoting the reduction of O2 with CH4, able to attain >95% O2 removal at 475 °C and a gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of 18,000 h-1 with a feed gas containing 3 vol% O2. Under all experiments, the concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) were lower than 30 ppmv in the effluent gas streams. The reaction between O2 and CH4 could be depicted by using the Mars–van Krevelen redox mechanism based on a two-step reduction–oxidation reaction pathway.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Evolution of Pore Structure and Permeability of Rocks Under Hydrothermal Conditions (Final Report)

The physical and transport properties of porous rocks can be altered by a variety of diagenetic, metamorphic, and tectonic processes, and the changes that result are of critical importance to such industrial applications as resource recovery, carbon dioxide sequestration, and waste isolation in geologic formations. The associated interrelationships between rocks, pore fluids and deformation are also key to understanding many natural processes, including dynamic metamorphism, fault mechanics, fault stability and pressure solution creep. In this project, we investigated the changes of permeability and pore geometry owing to inelastic deformation by solution-transfer, brittle fracturing and dislocation creep. In particular, we studied the coupling between pore fluids and deformation in fluid-filled quartz, calcite, mudstones and ultramafic rocks and examine the effects of coupled mechanical and chemical processes on the evolution of porosity and permeability under hydrothermal conditions. The investigations used a combination of techniques, that included triaxial laboratory experiments; uniaxial compressive loading with in situ observations of microstructure; permeability under hydrostatic compression; observations of microstructure using optical and electron microscopes, and micro-CT imaging; and numerical calculations. Laboratory experiments were designed to provide mechanical and transport data under conditions that isolate the particular mechanisms responsible for the changes. The data obtained were used to quantify changes in surface roughness, porosity, pore dimensions and their spatial fluctuations. The results of the experiments and data from image analyses were compared to the results of network, finite-difference and other numerical models to verify the validity of experimentally established relations between permeability and other rock properties. A bibliography for the period from 2015-2019 is appended below. New results obtained in the final year and the unfunded extension period are detailed below.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

NNSA-IAEC Science and Technology Working Group Area V - Waste Management and Subsurface Science, (Q1 FY2021)

The objective of Topic Area V is to evaluate the feasibility and safety of an intermediate-depth borehole for disposal of IAEC nuclear waste. The IAEC nuclear waste is currently stored in above ground and/or in near-surface facilities that provide short-term radiological worker safety but do not provide long-term, full security and safeguards protection for the nuclear material. Disposal of the IAEC nuclear waste several hundred meters below the surface in a sealed borehole would provide long-term security and safeguards due to its depth underground, as well as long-term radiological safety, due to its isolation in a stable geological formation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Integrated Monitoring Volume: A Summary of Monitoring Studies Conducted in Niagaran Carbonate Pinnacle Reefs During Enhanced Oil Recovery with CO 2

The Midwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (MRCSP) was founded in 2003 as part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership initiative. Since its founding, MRCSP has made significant strides toward making CCUS a viable option for states in the region. The public/private consortium, funded through the DOE Regional Carbon Sequestration Initiative, brings together nearly 40 industry partners and 10 states. Battelle, as the project lead, oversees research, development and operations and coordinates activities among the partners. The incremental, phased approach has built a valuable knowledge base for the industry and paved the way for commercial-scale adoption of CCUS technologies. From 2008 to 2020, MRCSP Phase III focused on the development of large-scale injection projects. This report is part of a series of reports prepared under the Midwestern Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (MRCSP) Phase III (Development Phase). These reports summarize and detail the findings of the work conducted under the Phase III project. During the MRCSP Phase III monitoring period, over 1 million metric tons of CO 2 was injected into ten Silurian-age (Niagaran) pinnacle reef reservoirs in Otsego County, Michigan that are operated by Core Energy, LLC. There are over 800 pinnacle reefs in northern Michigan, and collectively, these geologic features have sufficient capacity to store several hundred million metric tons of CO 2 . Moreover, most of the reefs are oil-bearing and went through primary production in the 1970s and 1980s; therefore, by injecting CO 2 into the reefs, there is a real opportunity to realize additional (enhanced) oil recovery (EOR) and to permanently store CO 2 after EOR. A key objective of the MRCSP Phase III project is to evaluate the effectiveness of various technologies for monitoring CO 2 that has been injected into deep geologic formations. Monitoring may be required at CO 2 storage sites for a variety of reasons, including to meet UIC Class II (EOR sites) or Class VI (storage only sites) permit requirements or EPA greenhouse gas reporting rule requirements or to qualify for tax credits under the 45Q tax credit rule. The results of this monitoring study should prove useful to operators considering using carbonate pinnacle reefs of Northern Michigan for CO 2 storage.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2022

CO 2 Storage prospeCtive Resource Estimation Excel aNalysis (CO 2 -SCREEN) User’s Manual: Python_V4.1

This user’s manual guides the use of the National Energy Technology Laboratory’s (NETL) CO 2 Storage prospeCtive Resource Estimation Excel aNalysis (CO 2 -SCREEN) tool, which was developed to aid users in screening geologic formations for prospective CO 2 storage resources. This manual is specific to the CO 2 -SCREEN 4.1 version which is based in Python. The 4.1 version of CO 2 -SCREEN adds in newly updated storage efficiency factors for saline formations. CO 2 -SCREEN applies U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) methods and equations for estimating prospective CO 2 storage resources for saline formations, shale formations, and residual oil zones (ROZ). CO 2 -SCREEN was developed to be substantive and user-friendly and provide a consistent method for calculating prospective CO 2 storage resources. CO 2 -SCREEN uses a Java- based graphical user interface (GUI) for data inputs and uses Python to calculate prospective CO 2 storage resources.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Area V: Waste Management and Subsurface Science (FY23 Q2)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2023

Area V: Waste Management and Subsurface Science Q3 Report

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗

DOE OSTI2023

Robust In-Situ Strain Measurements to Monitor CO 2 Storage

The goal of this project was to develop and demonstrate robust instrumentation to monitor the in-situ strain tensor in order to improve the reliability and security of CO 2 storage in geologic formations. We met the original goals of the project and the major overarching accomplishment is the advancement of strain tensor monitoring from an intriguing concept to a commercially available technology with a solid foundation of novel instruments supported by theoretical analyses and validation experiments. The main accomplishments of the project are summarized below. We designed, built and evaluated nine new optical fiber strainmeters and tiltmeters using Michelson interferometers to measure deformation with ultra-high resolution at both shallow and deep point locations in the subsurface. These are the robust strainmeters that motivated the title of the project. We designed, built and evaluated a novel method of measuring distributed strain in optical fibers with nanostrain resolution, and cm-scale location, and sampling into the seismic band. The new method is called Coherence-length-gated Microwave Photonics Interfereometry (CMPI). CMPI technology has advantages over existing commercial DAS and DSS methods. We developed and demonstrated capabilities to deploy instruments in the field and used them to measure strain caused by ambient signals like barometric pressure and tides, as well as induced signals like surface loading and pore pressure changes from pumping tests. We deployed a working strainmeter at 1,700 ft depth, slightly above an active reservoir. This is to our knowledge the greatest depth a strainmeter has been deployed and the techniques we used can readily be extended to greater depths. Optical fiber borehole tensor strainmeter techology was advanced from a TRL 4 at the start, to a TRL of 7 at the conclusion of the project. The project included advances in simulations and theoretical analyses. We developed and demonstrated a computational workflow that uses machine learning to reduce the computational requirements and make it practical to use Bayesian inversion to solve large numerical poroelastic analyses needed to interpret strain tensor field data. We evaluated the strain tensor fields and time series that would be caused by leaks of CO 2 or other fluids from reservoirs. These simulations demonstrated that signals from leaks could be measured with instruments developed for the project, opening a potentially new method for ensuring storage security. We showed that strains in caprock can be used to estimate pressure in a reservoir. This avoids the need to drill monitoring wells into the reservoir, and it expands the capabilities of monitoring in the caprock. The project includes a derivation and application of a novel analytical solution to the strains in the vicinity of a pressurized poroelastic inclusion. This solution explains field data measured during injeciton tests at the North Avant Field, and it will simplify future interpretation of strain tensor data. The project included a broad range of experiments, and of the most significant is the characterization of the strain tensor at an array three strainmeters during six injection tests at the North Avant Field, Oklahoma. This demonstrated repeatability of the strain signal measured by the new instruments developed for the project, and it showed similarities between the strain signal at shallow depths and pressure in the underlying reservoir. We also demonstrated that useful strain data can be measured at reservoir depths. This confirms that strain tensor data can be measured throughout the caprock over a reservoir. The project demonstrated the feasibility of using the strain tensor and distributed strain measured in caprock during a variety of different well tests where the pumping rate was constant, sinusoidal and positive, or a periodic square wave with zero net rate. This further strengthens the validity of using strain data to characterize reservoirs and aquifers. We also demonstrated that strain caused be fluctuations of air pressure and water pressure in the vadose zone can be measured and interpreted, suggesting that high resolution distributed strain measurements hold promise for monitoring the vadose zone. The project partially supported nine graduate students in the Environmental Engineering, Hydrogeology, Electrical Engineering programs at Clemson University. The research was described in nine journal papers, 23 talks and conference abstracts. Additional journal papers are in preparation. A new company called Tensora was started to provide strainmeter technology for commercial applications.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2023

Scoping Review of Global Offshore Geologic Carbon Storage Activities

This technical report documents an inventory of offshore geologic carbon storage (GCS) sites globally, with a focus on existing, operating international sites and those characterized in the United States, indicating the type and variety of GCS efforts. Regional overviews provide a high-level understanding of basin-scale geology and history of GCS globally. Key aspects documented in this review include geological formation types, depth, play style, project size, timeline, existing infrastructure, environmental challenges, and potential risks. This review also includes a summary of the regulatory frameworks globally, as well as environmental, social, and commercial considerations.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Area V: Waste Management and Subsurface Science (FY21-23 Final Report)

The objective of the Waste Management and Subsurface Science Topic Area V project is to evaluate the feasibility and safety of an intermediate-depth borehole for disposal of Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC) nuclear waste. The IAEC nuclear waste is currently stored in above ground and/or in near-surface facilities that provide short-term radiological worker safety but do not provide long-term, full security and safeguards protection for the nuclear material. Disposal of the IAEC nuclear waste several hundred meters below the surface in a sealed borehole would provide long-term security and safeguards due to its depth underground, as well as long-term radiological safety, due to its isolation in a stable geological formation. This project supports the nuclear security and safeguards initiatives of the Science and Technology Working Group of the NNSA/IAEC Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and addresses the Topic Area V objective and associated goals. The goals for Topic Area V are: (1) Assess the suitability of the vadose zone in the Yamin Plain of the northern Negev Desert, Israel as a host location for intermediate-depth borehole disposal of radioactive waste, (2) Define and refine the necessary characterization needs to better understand the regional climate, structure, and stratigraphy, geomechanics, geochemistry, hydrogeology, and seismicity of the stratigraphic sequence from the surface to the water table in the vicinity of the proposed host location for the disposal borehole(s), and (3) Develop a preliminary plan and schedule, including necessary resources and costs, for a borehole disposal concept and robust and transparent pre-closure and post-closure safety assessments. The safety assessments will require iteration with process level models at both site and regional scales. Upon completion, the information collected by this effort will allow the IAEC to make decisions regarding the viability and applicability of an intermediate depth (<500m) borehole for disposal in the vadose zone of the Yamin Plain. This FY21-23 final report is provided in lieu of a workshop report that was originally planned for delivery in January, 2024. Due to the conflict in Israel and associated delays, the workshop has been delayed to April 2024. The workshop will be held at LLNL but offsite and will switch to hybrid if travel restrictions remain in place. The associated workshop report will be provided as part of a new FY24-26 LCP.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2024

CO 2 Storage prospeCtive Resource Estimation Excel aNalysis (CO 2 -SCREEN) User’s Manual: Python_V5.0

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

NETL’s Perspective on Storage Efficiency and CO2-SCREEN

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process that captures carbon dioxide (CO2) by separating it from anthropogenic emissions sources before atmospheric release and storing that CO2 in deep geologic reservoirs. CCS is a powerful method for reducing anthropogenic CO2 which can ultimately diminish the effects of climate change. Prospective CO2 storage resource is the amount of carbon dioxide that can be stored in a given geologic formation typically given as a mass (e.g., metric tons). Obtaining accurate estimates of CO2 storage resources is necessary for governments and industries to make energy-related policy decisions. Researchers at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) under the Department of Energy (DOE) developed a methods and a tool [CO2-SCREEN (Storage prospeCtive Resource Estimation Excel aNalysis) to estimate prospective carbon storage resources for saline formations, unconventional shale formations, and residual oil zones. The methods and tool provide CO2 storage and efficiency outputs in the form of probability estimates (i.e. P10 and P90) as well as partitioning storage and efficiency estimates based on storage mechanism (total, free phase, sorbed phase, and dissolution phase). This presentation will focus on how storage efficiency is calculated based on numerical modeling efforts, how it’s applied in the storage methods and tool, and then highlighting needs for future development.

Hanson, Angela Goodman↗

DOE OSTI2024

Quantitative risk assessment examples for underground hydrogen storage facilities

Hydrogen energy storage can be used to achieve goals of national energy security, renewable energy integration, and grid resilience. Adapting underground natural gas storage facility (UNGSF) infrastructure for underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is one method of storing large quantities of hydrogen that has already largely been proven to work for natural gas. There are currently some underground salt caverns in the United States that are being used for hydrogen storage by commercial entities, but it is still a fairly new concept in that it has not been widely deployed nor has it been done with other geologic formations like depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs. Assessments of UHS systems can help identify and evaluate risks to people both working within the facility and residing nearby. This report provides example risk assessment methodologies and analyses for generic wellhead and processing facility configurations, specifically in the context of the risks of unintentional hydrogen releases into the air. Assessment of the hydrogen containment in the subsurface is also critically important for a safety assessment for a UHS facility, but those geomechanical assessments are not included in this report.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

SimCCS 3.0 User GUIDE

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is an important technology aimed at reducing CO 2 emissions and contributing to the mitigation strategies of climate change. The process involves three main steps: CO 2 capture, transport, and storage. Specifically, CO 2 is captured from industrial facilities, such as coal-fired power plants and natural gas processing plants. It is then transported through infrastructure networks, such as pipelines, rails, and ships, and injected into underground geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs or deep saline aquifers, for permanent storage. The entire CCS value chain encompasses multiple components, including CO 2 sources, transport networks, and storage sites. The proper design of CCS transport infrastructure is an essential step for the deployment of CCS technology. However, the design is not a trivial process, as it presents many challenges and requires consideration of numerous economic, social, and environmental factors.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2024

ML-Based Rock Properties and Seismic Volume Enhancement

This project aims to improve field-scale Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) assessments by enhancing petrophysical and geophysical log predictions through machine learning and neural networks. In our work during EY23, we applied Conditional Variational Autoencoders (CVAEs) to predict compressional velocity (Vp) and assess CO2 saturation levels in geological formations at the Illinois Basin Decatur Project (IBDP). In another task, we improved full-waveform inversion (FWI) methods with machine-learning approaches using lithological constraints. Full-waveform inversion (FWI) of seismic data estimates the elastic properties of subsurface rocks with high spatial resolution.

Nathanail, Athanasios↗

DOE OSTI2024

Scaleup and Site-Specific Engineering Design for Global Thermostat Direct Air Capture Technology

The overall goal of the project is completion of an initial design of a commercial-scale, Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage Direct Air Capture (CCUS-DAC) plant design at three different sites that captures a net of at least 100,000 tonnes per year (TPY) carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere and considers compression and conditioning of the captured CO 2 for purpose of pipeline transportation to different geological formation sites for deep well injection and underground storage. In addition to the leading system consisting of a scaled-up Global Thermostat DAC unit, overall plant design includes a combined Heat and Power (CHP) unit integrated with a conventional liquid amine-based carbon capture system (90% capture) and compression facilities. These are considered balance of plant (BOP) systems and are required to provide low carbon-intensity steam and power to the DAC process. A second approach involving provision of DAC units modified to directly capture emissions from the CHP unit was initially assessed as an alternative and it was determined to be less mature than considered approach and not included in the scaled-up plant design efforts. Three geographically diverse continental United States locations were selected to better understand the effect of local/regional ambient conditions on scaled-up DAC system performance and project costs: Bucks, Alabama (hot wet climate), Odessa, Texas (dry hot climate), and Goose Creek, Illinois (mid continental climate). The team focused on initial engineering design activities, including the development of project design criteria, initiation of site-specific studies and investigations, completion of DAC system process and equipment design, and definition of balance of plant (BOP) engineering. The purpose of the activities were to develop Technoeconomic Analysis (TEA), Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA), and Environmental, Health, and Safety (EH&S) analysis, and Business Case Analysis (BCA) to validate that the project engineering and scale-up plans of the DAC systems, at each of the three distinct case studies considered, are technically, economically, and environmentally feasible for commercial-scale operation.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2025

CO 2 Transport Infrastructure Outlook in the United States

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) represents one of the most important methods to mitigate anthropogenic carbon emissions at a large scale, playing a key role in meeting climate change targets (Bui et al., 2018) and for net-zero CO 2 by 2050 scenarios in the United States (Browning et al., 2023). This technology involves capturing CO 2 emissions from industrial processes, transporting them via pipelines, trucks, rails, or ships, and ultimately storing them in underground geological sites, such as saline aquifers or depleted oil reservoirs. Thus, to encourage carbon reduction initiatives, the U.S. Congress enacted the Bipartisan Budget Act in 2018, reforming the 45Q tax credit to benefit operators storing CO 2 in geologic formations (Jones and Sherlock, 2021). Additionally, the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act further expanded these incentives, providing additional support for CCS initiatives (Hackett and Kuehn, 2023). Although numerous studies describe the importance of optimal CO 2 transportation to support the decision-making of CCS projects aligned with the objective of net-zero emissions by 2050 (Abramson and Christensen, 2021; Chen and Pawar, 2023; Greig and Pascale, 2021), further efforts are required to optimize the transport infrastructure for national-scale CCS deployment. Therefore, in this study, we examine three nationwide scenarios with the SimCCS 3.0 tool (Ma et al., 2022, 2023, 2024) along with a novel geospatial splitting approach developed by Velasco-Lozano et al. (Velasco- Lozano et al., 2024a, 2024b). We present optimized pipeline networks that meet the dynamic evolution of annual capture amounts, describing the required total pipeline lengths at each stage as a function of the pipeline diameters. Thus, the cases presented demonstrate the feasibility of CO 2 pipeline infrastructure for large-scale CCS projects.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Casing Annulus Monitoring of CO 2 Injection Using Wireless Autonomous Distributed Sensor Networks

Effective and secure carbon subsurface storage, involving the deep underground injection of CO 2 into geological formations where it is permanently trapped, is paramount to mitigating CO 2 emissions (Figure I). Ensuring the integrity of these storage sites and detecting potential leakage through the casing annulus necessitates robust monitoring. This work provides the first integrated demonstration of a wireless casing-annulus monitoring architecture that can operate in highly attenuating cement-brine environments relevant to CO 2 storage. This project focused on developing and validating a novel sensor system for integration with autonomous monitoring near the cement reservoir interface. The goal was a fully integrated Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 4/5 field validation of a distributed wireless intelligent sensor system providing real-time, direct subsurface formation measurements to enhance fluid movement monitoring in the cemented casing annulus. Achieving this objective required the development and integration of 1) wireless autonomous microsensor technology by California Institute of Technology (Caltech); 2) sensor packaging and emplacement technology by Research Triangle Institute (RTI); and 3) smart well completions using wireless active casing collars and NOV pipe by the Sandia National Lab (SNL). The collaboration with the Caltech team in this project aimed to develop millimeter-scale radio frequency identification (RFID) sensors capable of detecting CO 2 , pH, and/or methane levels. These sensors are engineered to be impervious to fluids, allowing them to be mixed with cement and installed within the casing annulus. They operate using RFID protocols at frequencies of 902–928 MHz for both power and communication. A Sandia National Laboratories’ team engaged their expertise in the development of a Smart Collar system designed for the wireless data collection from these RFID sensors embedded in the cement annulus and transmission of this information to the ground surface via IntelliPipe/IntelliServ NOV drill pipe. This is accomplished through inductive coupling at the collar, which facilitates data transfer through each segment of the pipe. Because the system cannot transmit a direct current signal to power the Smart Collar, both power and communication were implemented using alternating current and electromagnetic signals at varying frequencies. Furthermore, the developed microsensor technology had to be demonstrated and validated in comparison with reference transducer measurements in a field test site at The University of Texas at Austin (UT-Austin). Although the full sensor suite did not reach field-deployment readiness, the system-level integration achieved in this project establishes a validated pathway for future incorporation of advanced microsensors.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗