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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,063 records · Page 59
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2013

Systematic evaluation of four-dimensional hybrid depth scanning for carbon-ion lung therapy

Purpose: Irradiation of a moving target with a scanning beam requires a comprehensive understanding of organ motion as well as a robust dose error mitigation technique. The authors studied the effects of intrafractional respiratory motion for carbon-ion pencil beam scanning with phase-controlled rescanning on dose distributions for lung tumors. To address density variations, they used 4DCT data. Methods: Dose distributions for various rescanning methods, such as simple layer rescanning (LR), volumetric rescanning, and phase-controlled rescanning (PCR), were calculated for a lung phantom and a lung patient studies. To ensure realism, they set the scanning parameters such as scanning velocity and energy variation time to be similar to those used at our institution. Evaluation metrics were determined with regard to clinical relevance, and consisted of (i) phase-controlled rescanning, (ii) sweep direction, (iii) target motion (direction and amplitude), (iv) respiratory cycle, and (v) prescribed dose. Spot weight maps were calculated by using a beam field-specific target volume, which takes account of range variations for respective respiratory phases. To emphasize the impact of intrafractional motion on the dose distribution, respiratory gating was not used. The accumulated dose was calculated by applying a B-spline-based deformable image registration, and the results for phase-controlled layered rescanning (PCR{sub L}) and phase-controlled volumetric rescanning (PCR{sub V}) were compared. Results: For the phantom study, simple LR was unable to improve the dose distributions for an increased number of rescannings. The phase-controlled technique without rescanning (1 Multiplication-Sign PCR{sub L} and 1 Multiplication-Sign PCR{sub V}) degraded dose conformity significantly due to a reduced scan velocity. In contrast, 4 Multiplication-Sign PCR{sub L} or more significantly and consistently improved dose distribution. PCR{sub V} showed interference effects, but in general also improved dose homogeneity with higher numbers of rescannings. Dose distributions with single PCR{sub L}/PCR{sub V} with a sweep direction perpendicular to motion direction showed large hot/cold spots; however, this effect vanished with higher numbers of rescannings for both methods. Similar observations were obtained for the other dose metrics, such as target motion (SI/AP), amplitude (6-22 mm peak-to-peak) and respiratory period (3.0-5.0 s). For four or more rescannings, both methods showed significantly better results, albeit that volumetric PCR was more affected by interference effects, which lead to severe degradation of a few dose distributions. The clinical example showed the same tendencies as the phantom study. Dose assessment metrics (D95, Dmax/Dmin, homogeneity index) were improved with an increasing number of PCR{sub L}/PCR{sub V}, but with PCR{sub L} being more robust. Conclusions: PCR{sub L} requires a longer treatment time than PCR{sub V} for high numbers of rescannings in the NIRS scanning system but is more robust. Although four or more rescans provided good dose homogeneity and conformity, the authors prefer to use more rescannings for clinical cases to further minimize dose degradation effects due to organ motion.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

THE FIRST ''WATER FOUNTAIN'' COLLIMATED OUTFLOW IN A PLANETARY NEBULA

''Water fountains'' (WFs) are evolved objects showing high-velocity, collimated jets traced by water maser emission. Most of them are in the post-asymptotic giant branch (post-AGB) and they may represent one of the first manifestations of collimated mass loss in evolved stars. We present water maser, carbon monoxide, and mid-infrared spectroscopic data (obtained with the Australia Telescope Compact Array, Herschel Space Observatory, and the Very Large Telescope, respectively) toward IRAS 15103–5754, a possible planetary nebula (PN) with WF characteristics. Carbon monoxide observations show that IRAS 15103–5754 is an evolved object, while the mid-IR spectrum displays unambiguous [Ne II] emission, indicating that photoionization has started and thus, its nature as a PN is confirmed. Water maser spectra show several components spreading over a large velocity range (≅ 75 km s{sup –1}) and tracing a collimated jet. This indicates that the object is a WF, the first WF known that has already entered the PN phase. However, the spatial and kinematical distribution of the maser emission in this object are significantly different from those in other WFs. Moreover, the velocity distribution of the maser emission shows a ''Hubble-like'' flow (higher velocities at larger distances from the central star), consistent with a short-lived, explosive mass-loss event. This velocity pattern is not seen in other WFs (which are presumably in earlier evolutionary stages). We therefore suggest that we are witnessing a fundamental change of mass-loss processes in WFs, with water masers being pumped by steady jets in post-AGB stars, but tracing explosive/ballistic events as the object enters the PN phase.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

The deflagration stage of Chandrasekhar mass models for type Ia supernovae. I. Early evolution

We present high-resolution, full-star simulations of the post-ignition phase of Type Ia supernovae using the compressible hydrodynamics code Castro. Initial conditions, including the turbulent velocity field and ignition site, are imported directly from a simulation of the last few hours of presupernova convection using a low Mach number code, Maestro. Adaptive mesh refinement allows the initial burning front to be modeled with an effective resolution of 36,864{sup 3} zones (136 m zone{sup –1}). The initial rise and expansion of the deflagration front are tracked until burning reaches the star's edge and the role of the background turbulence on the flame is investigated. The effect of artificially moving the ignition location closer to the star's center is explored. The degree to which turbulence affects the burning front decreases with increasing ignition radius since the buoyancy force is stronger at larger radii. Even central ignition—in the presence of a background convective flow field—is rapidly carried off-center as the flame is carried by the flow field. We compare our results to analytic models for burning thermals, and find that they reproduce the general trends of the bubble's size and mass, but underpredict the amount of buoyant acceleration due to simplifying assumptions of the bubble's properties. Overall, we find that the amount of mass that burns prior to flame break out is small, consistent with a gravitationally confined detonation' occurring at a later epoch, but additional burning will occur following breakout that may modify this conclusion.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

A spectral cascade-transport turbulence model for wall-bounded flows

A spectral cascade-transport model has been developed and applied to turbulent channel flows (Re{sub τ} = 550, 950, and 2000 based on friction velocity, u{sub τ}; or Re{sub δ} = 8,500; 14,800 and 31,000, based on the mean velocity and channel half-width). This model is an extension of a spectral model previously developed for homogeneous single and two-phase decay of isotropic turbulence and uniform shear flows; and a spectral turbulence model for wall-bounded flows without resolving the boundary layer. A direct numerical simulation (DNS) of turbulent channel flow was used to help develop this model and to assess its performance in the 1D direction across the channel width. The resultant spectral model is capable of predicting the mean velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and energy spectrum distributions for single-phase wall-bounded flows all the way to the wall, where the model source terms have been developed to account for the wall influence. The model is in the process of implementation into the 3D multiphase CFD code NPHASE-CMFD and the latest results are within reasonable error of the 1D predictions. (authors)

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electron-only reconnection and associated electron heating and acceleration in PHASMA

In this work, using incoherent Thomson scattering, electron heating and acceleration at the electron velocity distribution function (EVDF) level are investigated during electron-only reconnection in the PHAse Space MApping (PHASMA) facility. Reconnection arises during the merger of two kink-free flux ropes. Both push and pull type reconnection occur in a single discharge. Electron heating is localized around the separatrix, and the electron temperature increases continuously along the separatrix with distance from the X-line. The local measured gain in enthalpy flux is up to 70% of the incoming Poynting flux. Notably, non-Maxwellian EVDFs comprised of a warm bulk population and a cold beam are directly measured during the electron-only reconnection. The electron beam velocity is comparable to, and scales with, electron Alfvén speed, revealing the signature of electron acceleration caused by electron-only reconnection. The observation of oppositely directed electron beams on either side of the X-point provides “smoking-gun” evidence of the occurrence of electron-only reconnection in PHASMA. 2D particle-in-cell simulations agree well with the laboratory measurements. The measured conversion of Poynting flux into electron enthalpy is consistent with recent observations of electron-only reconnection in the magnetosheath [Phan et al., Nature 557, 202 (2018)] at similar dimensionless parameters as in the experiments. The laboratory measurements go beyond the magnetosheath observations by directly resolving the electron temperature gain.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2017

Wall-resolved spectral cascade-transport turbulence model

A spectral cascade-transport model has been developed and applied to turbulent channel flows (Reτ= 550, 950, and 2000 based on friction velocity, uτ ; or ReδΜ= 8,500; 14,800 and 31,000, based on the mean velocity and channel half-width). This model is an extension of a spectral model previously developed for homogeneous single and two-phase decay of isotropic turbulence and uniform shear flows; and a spectral turbulence model for wall-bounded flows without resolving the boundary layer. Data from direct numerical simulation (DNS) of turbulent channel flow was used to help develop this model and to assess its performance in the 1D direction across the channel width. The resultant spectral model is capable of predicting the mean velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and energy spectrum distributions for single-phase wall-bounded flows all the way to the wall, where the model source terms have been developed to account for the wall influence. We implemented the model into the 3D multiphase CFD code NPHASE-CMFD and the latest results are within reasonable error of the 1D predictions.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Probing iron in Earth’s core with molecular-spin dynamics

Dynamic compression of iron to Earth-core conditions is one of the few ways to gather important elastic and transport properties needed to uncover key mechanisms surrounding the geodynamo effect. Herein, a machine-learned ab initio derived molecular-spin dynamics (MSD) methodology with explicit treatment for longitudinal spin-fluctuations is utilized to probe the dynamic phase-diagram of iron. This framework uniquely enables an accurate resolution of the phase-transition kinetics and Earth-core elastic properties, as highlighted by compressional wave velocity and adiabatic bulk moduli measurements. In addition, a unique coupling of MSD with time-dependent density functional theory enables gauging electronic transport properties, critically important for resolving geodynamo dynamics.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Synthesis of Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure via spark plasma sintering for improved oxidation resistance of multi-component ultra-high temperature ceramics

Ultra-high temperature ceramics (UHTCs) have shown aspiration to overcome challenges in the thermal protection system (TPS) by designing new materials referred to as multi-component UHTCs (MC-UHTCs) in the compositional space. MC-UHTCs have shown remarkable improvement in oxidation resistance due to the formation of the Hf6Ta2O17 superstructure during plasma exposure. Herein, the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure is synthesized via a solid-state reaction between HfO 2 and Ta 2 O 5 powder mixtures during spark plasma sintering (SPS). The compositions chosen are 50 vol% of HfO 2 -50 vol% of Ta 2 O 5 (50HO-50TO) and 70 vol% of HfO 2 -30 vol% of Ta 2 O 5 (70HO-30TO). The phase quantification via Rietveld analysis showed Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 as a principal phase with some residual Ta 2 O 5 phase in both the samples. The high-temperature thermal stability of the samples was evaluated using high-velocity plasma jet exposure for up to 3 min. 50HO-50TO was able to withstand the intense plasma condition, which is attributed to the higher content of the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 phase (~84%) and lower strain in the Ta 2 O 5 phase. The augmentation in the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 phase to 94.7% (in 50HO-50TO) post plasma exposure has been attributed to the invariant transformation from a liquid state to Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 at temperatures >2500 °C during testing. The mechanical integrity is elucidated from the insignificant change in the hardness ~13.3 GPa before and 11.2 GPa after plasma exposure of the 50HO-50TO sample. As a result, the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure's thermo-mechanical stability suggests developing novel oxidation-resistant MC-UHTCs in compositional space for reusable space vehicle applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

BROAD [C II] LINE WINGS AS TRACER OF MOLECULAR AND MULTI-PHASE OUTFLOWS IN INFRARED BRIGHT GALAXIES

We report a tentative correlation between the outflow characteristics derived from OH absorption at 119 μ m and [C ii] emission at 158 μ m in a sample of 22 local and bright ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs). For this sample, we investigate whether [C ii] broad wings are a good tracer of molecular outflows, and how the two tracers are connected. Fourteen objects in our sample have a broad wing component as traced by [C ii], and all of these also show OH119 absorption indicative of an outflow (in one case an inflow). The other eight cases, where no broad [C ii] component was found, are predominantly objects with no OH outflow or a low-velocity (≤100 km s{sup −1}) OH outflow. The FWHM of the broad [C ii] component shows a trend with the OH119 blueshifted velocity, although with significant scatter. Moreover, and despite large uncertainties, the outflow masses derived from OH and broad [C ii] show a 1:1 relation. The main conclusion is therefore that broad [C ii] wings can be used to trace molecular outflows. This may be particularly relevant at high redshift, where the usual tracers of molecular gas (like low-J CO lines) become hard to observe. Additionally, observations of blueshifted Na i D λλ 5890, 5896 absorption are available for 10 of our sources. Outflow velocities of Na i D show a trend with OH velocity and broad [C ii] FWHM. These observations suggest that the atomic and molecular gas phases of the outflow are connected.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

A GLOBAL PHYSICAL MODEL FOR CEPHEIDS

We perform a global fit to {approx}5000 radial velocity and {approx}177, 000 magnitude measurements in 29 photometric bands covering 0.3 {mu}m to 8.0 {mu}m distributed among 287 Galactic, Large Magellanic Cloud, and Small Magellanic Cloud Cepheids with P > 10 days. We assume that the Cepheid light curves and radial velocities are fully characterized by distance, reddening, and time-dependent radius and temperature variations. We construct phase curves of radius and temperature for periods between 10 and 100 days, which yield light-curve templates for all our photometric bands and can be easily generalized to any additional band. With only four to six parameters per Cepheid, depending on the existence of velocity data and the amount of freedom in the distance, the models have typical rms light and velocity curve residuals of 0.05 mag and 3.5 km s{sup -1}. The model derives the mean Cepheid spectral energy distribution and its derivative with respect to temperature, which deviate from a blackbody in agreement with metal-line and molecular opacity effects. We determine a mean reddening law toward the Cepheids in our sample, which is not consistent with standard assumptions in either the optical or near-IR. Based on stellar atmosphere models, we predict the biases in distance, reddening, and temperature determinations due to the metallicity and quantify the metallicity signature expected for our fit residuals. The observed residuals as a function of wavelength show clear differences between the individual galaxies, which are compatible with these predictions. In particular, we find that metal-poor Cepheids appear hotter. Finally, we provide a framework for optimally selecting filters that yield the smallest overall errors in Cepheid parameter determination or filter combinations for suppressing or enhancing the metallicity effects on distance determinations. We make our templates publicly available.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Experimental investigation on the energy deposition and expansion rate under the electrical explosion of aluminum wire in vacuum

Experimental investigations on the electrical explosion of aluminum wire using negative polarity current in vacuum are presented. Current pulses with rise rates of 40 A/ns, 80 A/ns, and 120 A/ns are generated for investigating the influence of current rise rate on energy deposition. Experimental results show a significant increase of energy deposition into the wire before the voltage breakdown with the increase of current rise rate. The influence of wire dimension on energy deposition is investigated as well. Decreasing the wire length allows more energy to be deposited into the wire. The energy deposition of a 0.5 cm-long wire explosion is ∼2.5 times higher than the energy deposition of a 2 cm-long wire explosion. The dependence of the energy deposition on wire diameter demonstrates a maximum energy deposition of 2.7 eV/atom with a diameter of ∼18 μm. Substantial increase in energy deposition is observed in the electrical explosion of aluminum wire with polyimide coating. A laser probe is applied to construct the shadowgraphy, schlieren, and interferometry diagnostics. The morphology and expansion trajectory of exploding products are analyzed based on the shadowgram. The interference phase shift is reconstructed from the interferogram. Parallel dual wires are exploded to estimate the expansion velocity of the plasma shell.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2018

Regional 3-D Geophysical Characterization of the Nevada National Security Site

We perform a joint inversion of absolute and differential P and S body waves, gravity measurements, and surface wave dispersion curves for the 3-D P- and S-wave velocity structure of the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS) and vicinity. Data from earthquakes, past nuclear tests, and other active source chemical explosive experiments, such as the Source Physics Experiments (SPE), are combined with surface wave phase and group speed measurements from ambient noise, source interferometry, and active source experiments to construct a 3-D velocity model of the site with resolvable structures as fine as 6 km horizontal and 2 km vertically. Results compare favorably with previous studies and expand and extend the knowledge of the 3-D structure of the region.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Detecting depinning and nonequilibrium transitions with unsupervised machine learning

Using numerical simulations of a model disk system, we demonstrate that a machine learning generated order-parameter-like measure can detect depinning transitions and different dynamic flow phases in systems driven far from equilibrium. Furthermore, we specifically consider monodisperse passive disks with short range interactions undergoing a depinning phase transition when driven over quenched disorder. The machine learning derived order-parameter-like measure identifies the depinning transition as well as different dynamical regimes, such as the transition from a flowing liquid to a phase separated liquid-solid state that is not readily distinguished with traditional measures such as velocity-force curves or Voronoi tessellation. The order-parameter-like measure also shows markedly distinct behavior in the limit of high density where jamming effects occur. Our results should be general to the broad class of particle-based systems that exhibit depinning transitions and nonequilibrium phase transitions.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2015

RivGen Controller Performance Raw Data, Igiugig, AK

Contains raw data for operations of Ocean Renewable Power Company (ORPC) RivGen Power System in Igiugig 2015 in Matlab data file format. Two data files capture the data and timestamps for data, including power in, voltage, rotation rate, and velocity. Location, Description, Format, Column 1, Date and time, MM/DD/YYYY, hh:mm:ss, Column 2, DC voltage (after DC filter), VDC, Column 3, DC current into inverters, IDC, Column 4, DC current into secondary resistive load, IDC, Column 5, Power into inverters, kW, Column 6, Power into secondary load, kW, Column 7, Frequency of single phase AC voltage from generator, Hz, Column 8, rotation rate of generator/turbine (rested at 1.1 when stationary), rad/s, Column 9, Velocity Algorithm 2, m/s, Column 10, Velocity Algorithm 3, m/s, Column 11, Rcodes for secondary load, see document "SL Controller PLC Memory", Column 12, Voltage measured between phase A and B, Vll,

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2013

Anisotropic dark matter distribution functions and impact on WIMP direct detection

Dark matter N-body simulations suggest that the velocity distribution of dark matter is anisotropic. In this work we employ a mass model for the Milky Way whose parameters are determined from a fit to kinematical data. Then we adopt an ansatz for the dark matter phase space distribution which allows to construct self-consistent halo models which feature a degree of anisotropy as a function of the radius such as suggested by the simulations. The resulting velocity distributions are then used for an analysis of current data from dark matter direct detection experiments. We find that velocity distributions which are radially biased at large galactocentric distances (up to the virial radius) lead to an increased high velocity tail of the local dark matter distribution. This affects the interpretation of data from direct detection experiments, especially for dark matter masses around 10 GeV, since in this region the high velocity tail is sampled. We find that the allowed regions in the dark matter mass-cross section plane as indicated by possible hints for a dark matter signal reported by several experiments as well as conflicting exclusion limits from other experiments shift in a similar way when the halo model is varied. Hence, it is not possible to improve the consistency of the data by referring to anisotropic halo models of the type considered in this work.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Experimental investigation of fuel temperature effects on transient needle motion and injection velocity of solenoid type diesel injector

Real driving emission (RDE) test conducted in sub-zero temperature conditions has been acting as a severe emission regulation over the existing test methods for diesel engines. In order to cope with this tightened regulation, many studies have been conducted to interpret the factors causing the deteriorated diesel engine combustion in cold operation conditions. The deteriorated fuel injection performance has been regarded as one of the key contributing factors but the governing mechanisms are not thoroughly understood so far. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the effects of fuel temperature including sub-zero conditions on fuel injection performance by measuring the transient needle motion and injection velocity of a diesel injector using synchrotron X-ray imaging techniques. Here, the factors causing the deteriorated injector performance and their contributions are discussed thoroughly based on the results. The results showed that the injection duration was shortened as the fuel temperature decreased as a result of decreased needle opening speed and increased needle closing speed. The increase of fuel viscosity and bulk modulus was discussed as the main factors associated with these results. The total injection mass was reduced by lowering the fuel temperature not only by the shortened injection duration but also by the decreased injection velocity. These factors exerted near equivalent contribution to the reduced injection mass at low fuel temperatures.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2015

ON THE ANALATICAL SOLUTIONS AND NUMERICAL VERIFICATIONS OF THE TWO-PHASE WATER FAUCET PROBLEM

The two-phase water faucet problem is one of the benchmark problems originally proposed by Ransom. The test consists of a vertical pipe, which is initially filled with a uniform column of liquid moving with an initial velocity and an annulus of gas sitting still. At the top boundary, liquid is supplied at the same velocity as the initial velocity, and the bottom of the pipe opens to the ambient. Due to the gravity effect, the liquid column accelerates and becomes thinner. With simplifications, such as massless gas phase and no wall and interfacial frictions, an analytical solution could be obtained for the transient liquid velocity and void fraction distribution. The test has been widely used for the purposes of code assessment, benchmark and numerical verifications. This exact solution was used in this work to verify the numerical accuracy of a high-resolution spatial discretization scheme. The high-resolution spatial discretization scheme is based on the commonly used staggered grid mesh, and slope limiter was introduced to achieve high resolutions in space. It was found that, at the steady state, an expected second-order spatial accuracy could not be achieved. A further investigation showed that this exact solution does not actually satisfy the commonly used two-fluid single pressure two-phase flow equations. More importantly, we have also found that a steady-state exact solution could be obtained for the water faucet problem. In this work, we have demonstrated the derivation of the steady-state exact solution for the water faucet problem. The exact solution was then used to verify a first-order and a high-resolution spatial discretization scheme, from which expected order of accuracy was achieved by doing mesh refinement.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2014

The PdBI arcsecond whirlpool survey (PAWS): Multi-phase cold gas kinematic of M51

The kinematic complexity and the favorable position of M51 on the sky make this galaxy an ideal target to test different theories of spiral arm dynamics. Taking advantage of the new high-resolution PdBI Arcsecond Whirlpool Survey data, we undertake a detailed kinematic study of M51 to characterize and quantify the origin and nature of the non-circular motions. Using a tilted-ring analysis supported by several other archival data sets, we update the estimation of M51's position angle (P.A. = (173 ± 3)°) and inclination (i = (22 ± 5)°). Harmonic decomposition of the high-resolution (∼40 pc) CO velocity field shows the first kinematic evidence of an m = 3 wave in the inner disk of M51 with a corotation at R {sub CR,} {sub m} {sub =} {sub 3} = 1.1 ± 0.1 kpc and a pattern speed of Ω {sub p,} {sub m} {sub =} {sub 3} ≈ 140 km s{sup –1} kpc{sup –1}. This mode seems to be excited by the nuclear bar, while the beat frequencies generated by the coupling between the m = 3 mode and the main spiral structure confirm its density-wave nature. We observe also a signature of an m = 1 mode that is likely responsible for the lopsidedness of M51 at small and large radii. We provide a simple method to estimate the radial variation of the amplitude of the spiral perturbation (V {sub sp}) attributed to the different modes. The main spiral arm structure has (V {sub sp}) = 50-70 km s{sup –1}, while the streaming velocity associated with the m = 1 and m = 3 modes is, in general, two times lower. Our joint analysis of H I and CO velocity fields at low and high spatial resolution reveals that the atomic and molecular gas phases respond differently to the spiral perturbation due to their different vertical distribution and emission morphology.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗