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We report on simulation of single event burnout of low gain avalanche diodes during high voltage operation after irradiation. A model is described which can be used to estimate energy deposition needed for single event burnout and the dependence of burnout on thermal conductivity and thermal resistance to heat sinks.
We describe a detector concept which combines small pixels enabled by 3D sensor-electronics integration with gain produced by a Low Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) layer. The detector is double-sided, with electrons collected by the cathode, which provides timing information, and an anode with small pixels to provide position and angle information. The cathode can be coarse grained, providing timing with fewer fast amplifiers to limit power consumption. The anode layer benefits from the gain of the LGAD, with larger signals that also limit the power needed. Position can be reconstructed by measuring the pattern of total charge deposited on the anode. Angle and depth of charge deposit can be measured by the shapes of the anode pulses. We describe a possible assembly technology based on 3D integration.
This project contributes fundamental understanding of the chemical synthesis of cadmium free quantum dots (QDs) designed for solid state lighting (SSL). Methods to incorporate gallium into quantum dot architectures were explored, which led to more stable and brighter solid state lighting devices. These findings will help advance the incorporation of quantum dots in highly energy efficient lighting devices with a warm color spectrum. Such Cd-free lighting devices can greatly accelerate the adoption of high efficiency, warm spectrum lighting in buildings. The project targeted InP/GaP/ZnS colloidal quantum dots that more effectively absorb the blue light produced by light emitting diode packages and emit monochromatic red light with near perfect efficiency. While significant improvements in the QD absorptivity were demonstrated, the absorbance increase achieved was 3x rather than the targeted 10x increase. Similarly, the luminescence from these QDs achieved about half of the target photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) and twice the desired spectral width, a measure of the color purity of their luminescence. While the target characteristics and some of the year 2/2 milestones were not met, the new QD architectures did lead to greater stability on SSL packages, a sign of the long term promise of the technology.
Crossed-field diodes (CFDs) are used in multiple high-power applications and are characterized by an applied magnetic field orthogonal to the electric field, induced by the applied voltage across the anode-cathode gap. In vacuum, the Hull cutoff magnetic field (HCMF) represents the maximum applied magnetic field for which an electron from the cathode can reach the anode. This study investigates the effects of non-vacuum conditions on electron trajectories by introducing electron mobility, which represents particle collisions. We used numerical solutions of the electron force law and particle-in-cell simulations (XPDP1) to assess electron motion for various electron mobilities. For magnetic fields above the HCMF in vacuum, reducing the electron mobility increases the time for an electron emitted from the cathode to reach the anode. Reducing mobility below 22 C s/kg eliminates the HCMF for any magnetic field, meaning that an emitted electron will always cross the gap. We derived the magnetic field, mobility, and electron transit time corresponding to this condition by solving for the condition when the electron velocity in the direction across the anode-cathode gap going to zero at the anode. A parametric study of these conditions using theory and XPDP1 is performed under different gap distances, voltages, and magnetic fields.
For the last few years, networked lighting control (NLCs) have promised significant energy savings beyond what is achieved through a basic light-emitting diode (LED) lighting retrofit. At the same time, NLCs can substantially increase the cost and complexity of the lighting retrofit. And as lighting system wattage declines because of the increasing efficiency of LEDs, advanced controls have less lighting energy to save and the cost-effectiveness of the NLC investment decreases. But NLCs can be leveraged to achieve significant energy savings and value by enhancing control of other building systems.
Power spectrum analysis (PSA) is a fast, non-destructive, sensitive method for examining commercial off-the-shelf ( COTS ) electronic components. These features make PSA attractive for both component screening and surveillance in support of component reliability efforts. Current analysis methods limit the utility of PSA due to the need to manually examine the results of analysis to identify anomalous parts. This study demonstrates the development and application of a workflow to automate the screening of COTS electronic components. Further, this study demonstrates the use of multivariate algorithms to assess aging of Zener diodes. These workflows can be readily extended to other components, combining the benefits of PSA and multivariate analysis to screen and evaluate COTS electronic components.
The carrier dynamics in InGaN/GaN light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are directly tied to their efficiency and maximum modulation speed, which are important metrics for solid-state lighting, displays, and optical communication. In this work, we measure the carrier dynamics of a variety of InGaN/GaN LEDs using small-signal electroluminescence methods [1]. A rate equation approach and associated small-signal circuit are used to model carrier injection, recombination in the active region, recombination in the cladding regions, and carrier escape. The model is fit to the measured optical frequency response (S21) and input impedance (S11) of the LEDs to extract the various carrier lifetimes, the carrier density, and the radiative and non-radiative recombination rates. We specifically study planar nonpolar and semipolar LEDs, which show record-high modulation speeds for III-nitride LEDs and present the modulation characteristics of core-shell nanowire-based LEDs. The planar nonpolar m-plane ($101\bar{0}$) micro-LEDs achieve a record-high -3dB modulation bandwidth for a III-nitride LED of 1.5 GHz [2]. The -3dB response of an electrically injected nanowire-based micro-LED with nonpolar facets is also reported, showing a -3dB bandwidth of 1.2 GHz [3]. The high speed is attributed to the shorter carrier lifetime associated with the nonpolar orientation. We also study the carrier dynamics in semipolar ($20\bar{2}\bar{1}$) LEDs for various temperatures [4]. Finally, we present carrier dynamics measurements on commercial-grade c-plane epitaxy for various active region designs, including a wavelength series and a growth quality series. The wavelength series offers insight into the contributions of the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) and InGaN material quality on the green gap [5]. The growth quality series investigates the role of non-radiative centers on the LED performance. Extraction of the carrier dynamics using small-signal electroluminescence offers insight into the factors limiting the efficiency and high-speed performance of III-nitride emitters and can be leveraged to ultimately improve the devices.
The Flow Sensor Test Article (F-STAr) is a test article currently under construction for the Mechanisms Engineering Test Loop (METL). F-STAr was designed to provide high sodium flowrate capabilities for sensor calibration, component testing, and fluid studies. Figure 1 shows two solid model views of the new test article. F-STAr includes a high-capacity pump that can provide a nominal flowrate of 120 GPM; a test section support structure that can accommodate a wide array of sub-test articles and their instrumentation; and finally, a heating and cooling system to aid in controlling the testing environment. Initially, F-STAr will be configured to test liquid metal flow sensors, specifically field shift sensors like the Eddy Current Flow Sensors (ECFS) based on the RDT C4-7T standard. To test these sensors, two test sections were designed that attempt to model Sodium Fast Reactor (SFR) outlet conditions. Figure 2 shows models of the “Full-Scaled Test Section” (FSTS) that represents a generic SFR fuel handling socket and a “Pseudo-Scaled Test Section” (PSTS) that represents a generic array of scaled fuel handling sockets. While F-STAr will be configured to test ECFS’s, it can also be outfitted to meet other experimental needs. For example, F-STAr could be setup with a test section that includes a fluidic diode or a component test investigating the performance of hydrodynamic bearings. Other test sections include studies of sodium thermal hydraulics like thermal striping. Overall, F-STAr is a flexible test article designed to accommodate many needs. This report will provide a status update on the design and construction of F-STAr. Manufacturing of all components has commenced, and several components have already been completed. These components include the pump and test section assembly stand. Other components, such as the heater, have been completed but were rejected due to the vendor not meeting the requirements of the purchase order. Lastly, the submersible flowmeter and main flange components are under construction, and their status will be reviewed in this report. Overall, most of the F-STAr components and parts will be completed by the end of September 2022.
Optocouplers, also called optoisolators and photocouplers, are devices that use a light emitting diode (LED) to conduct an electrical signal. The LED receives an electrical signal and emits light proportional to that signal. The light is then received by a phototransistor and the signal is propagated. Optocouplers provide a high degree of electrical isolation and are therefore used extensively in commercial electronic equipment. Variations in optocouplers come from the type of photodetector used, the anatomy of the contents and the encapsulating polymers used. Current research involves investigating the tolerance of optocouplers to radiation for the purpose of improving spacecraft and satellites, as well as identifying failure mechanisms and improving design. My project involvement at LANL includes conducting thermal and mechanical tests on three different cure profiles of epoxy to collect data about shrinkage, coefficient of thermal expansion, and degree of cure for a group wanting to produce their own optocoupler.
The Laboratory Analytical Procedure (LAP) outlined here describes a method to quantitatively extract phytopigments from microalgae biomass, as well as to identify and quantify individual pigments based on separation and detection with a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) system coupled to a Diode Array Detector (DAD). Pigments were extracted with greater than 95 % extraction efficiency. Chromatographic conditions allowed for isomeric resolution between pigments and identification based on UV/Vis spectra and comparison to analytical standards.
The goal of this proposed research is to develop a reliable high-temperature optocouplers, which can operate at 250°C with at least ten-year lifetime, and replace isolation transforms as the galvanic isolation solution for the 3D integration of high density power modules. The electrification of future transportations (i.e., electric vehicles) will continuously drive the demand for high density power modules. Optocouplers (i.e., packaged light emitter and detector) as a promising candidate to replace bulky isolation transformers are highly desirable to facilitate the continuous scale-down of gate driver circuitry that will lead to 3D high density power modules and achieve disruptive performance in terms of thermal management, power density, power efficiency, reliability and operating environments. However, regular semiconductor optoelectronic materials and devices have significant difficulty functioning in the harsh environments designated for high density power module usage (such as operation at high temperatures). Ultimately, it is not the intrinsic properties of power devices that prevent their use at higher temperatures, but rather the low voltage electronics needed to drive them and the packaging that surrounds them. The typical operating temperature for optocouplers is only up to 100°C, due to the limitations of light emitting diode (LED) devices inside and packaging materials. A systematic characterization methodology will be developed to analyze the performance, lifetime and reliability of LED devices and distinguish multiple failure mechanisms at high temperatures. An original methodology of “design for reliability” will be developed to design the optoelectronic devices with high reliability and long lifetime at high temperatures. A new architecture of high temperature high reliable optocouplers will be developed, fabricated and demonstrated with continuous operating at 250°C. The development of efficient, reliable high density 3D power modules is the foundation for energy efficiency and energy reliability. Enabled with advanced 3D integration and packaging technologies, high density power module solutions can achieve much more superior performance over the conventional discrete solutions in terms of efficiency, thermal management and power density. The proposed concept of high temperature optocouplers as the galvanic isolation solution for high density power modules will bring together interdisciplinary research involving the wide bandgap materials, optoelectronics, high reliable device design, electronics packaging and power modules. A streamline of skilled personnel would be trained including graduate and undergraduate students, local engineers and scientists which are in great demand to both academia and optoelectronics industry. The proposed research topics, such as, solid state lighting and high temperature device reliability, are currently of major interest at the Department of Energy, in particular, Sandia National Laboratories. This project can enhance collaborations between the University of Arkansas (UA) and Sandia National Laboratories. The findings of the proposed research are expected to be integrated into high density 3-D power modules at the Engineering Research Center for Power Optimization for Electro-Thermal Systems (POETS).
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Legacy Management (LM) prepared this Long-Term Surveillance and Maintenance Plan (LTS&M Plan) for the Salmon, Mississippi, Site (the Salmon site) to describe LM’s plan and policy for future site activities. The Salmon site consists of 1470 acres in Lamar County, Mississippi, approximately 10 miles west of Purvis, Mississippi, and about 21 miles southwest of Hattiesburg, Mississippi. The site is located over a large subsurface salt formation referred to as the Tatum Salt Dome. Two nuclear tests (Project Dribble) and two gas explosive tests (Project Miracle Play) were conducted in the salt dome between 1964 and 1970. Salmon, the first nuclear test, was conducted on October 22, 1964, and created a cavity approximately 2700 feet (ft) below ground surface (bgs). The second nuclear test, Sterling, was conducted on December 3, 1966. The Sterling test and the two gas explosions—Diode Tube on February 2, 1969, and Humid Water on April 19, 1970—were all conducted in the cavity created by the Salmon test. The four explosions were conducted as part of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission’s (AEC’s) Vela Uniform program. Testing at the site ended in 1970 after the second gas detonation. The tests resulted in residual contamination and postdetonation features that require long-term oversight.
The NNSS has extensive historical experience with high-fidelity flash neutron imaging which may be applicable to the needs of NA-22. In recent neutron imaging tests, a dense plasma focus (DPF) discharges a capacitor bank across a hydrogen-filled diode to create a flash of fusion neutrons emitted from a point, which can be used for active interrogation. Object inspection may include both radiography transmission imaging as well as emission imaging of the subject via an aperture. A scintillator screen (coupled to a low-Z converter when necessary) converts deposited energy to visible light, which is relayed through optics to an ultra-sensitive visible imager contained in a light-tight box. Flash photon imaging, utilizing bremsstrahlung emission instead of fusion neutrons, is also available and is more mature.
This series of experiments is exploring new frontiers in explosives science, technology, and engineering. The extensive list of experiment shots is necessary to sort out what works and what does not work in searching for an environment that supports anisotropic detonation properties in explosives. These experiments have been designed to serve as an economical and efficient first-cut determination as to whether there is any validity to an explosive analog to a series circuit of electrical diodes. That is, the detonation moves more easily in the “forward” direction than the “backward” direction. The basic data gleaned from these experiments will be used to design experiments that will be shot in the 10 kg tank at the High Explosives Application Facility (HEAF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In turn, those shots that will be heavy in diagostics and instrumentation, providing basic data that will be used by simulation code developers in creating high explosive models that account for air gap and oblique explosive surfaces undergoing sympathetic detonation.
This DOE award supported the PI’s research on topological quantum materials between 2018 and 2021. The PI developed predictive theories for new classes of topological insulators and topological/unconventional superconductors and identified their material realizations in collaboration with experimentalists. The PI theorized new topological transport phenomena, including spin superfluidity in moire materials and the superconducting diode effect. Topological transport phenomena have potential applications in cryogenic computing, low-power electronics, high-frequency rectification, infrared detection, energy harvesting and thermoelectric application. By discovering new quantum materials and new functional properties, the PI’s research contributed significantly to the advancement of DOE scientific and technological base, especially in energy frontier research.
The Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) conducted a laboratory-scale coal-derived graphene (CDG) project focused on developing a technological process for making graphene from four U.S. domestic coal or coal wastes, including lignite from North Dakota, subbituminous coal from Wyoming, bituminous coal from Utah, and anthracite from Pennsylvania. The project was divided into two performance or budget periods (BPs), with BP1 comprising the up-front laboratory experiments to make graphene materials from coal beginning on May 1, 2020, to April 30, 2022. BP2 was conducted from May 1, 2022, to April 30, 2023, and was focused on analyzing the CDG process economic feasibility and the technical gaps for technological scale-up and commercialization. During this project, a few different coal-derived high-value products have been demonstrated, including graphite, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs). A new graphite microstructure was discovered and named “croissant graphite” because of the exterior morphological and textural resemblance to croissant food items sold in commercial groceries stores. The new graphite structure and the associated preparation from coal or coal waste feedstocks has been the subject of a U.S. patent application. The systematic experimental processes involving coal cleaning, upgrading, and conversion to high-value carbon products culminated into a developed upgraded coal-to-products (UCP) technology that is being pursued for potential fast-track commercialization, if funding is available. It is envisioned that commercialization of the UCP technology would increase consumption of U.S. domestic coals or coal wastes to make environmentally sustainable high-value products for the electronics industry, high-energy-storage applications, and clean energy technologies such as electric vehicle (EV) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), for which graphite has become a critical mineral commodity. Croissant graphite microstructures, when observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), display wavy surface morphology and often grow from a base that is made of graphitized particles with honeycomb-like layers, which are believed to be graphene layers. While more studies are needed to fully ascertain the mechanisms of the croissant graphite microstructure formation, it is postulated that their growth may begin from curling of the graphene sheets into ribbon-like structures, and continuous growth and densification of the ribbon-like structures forms croissant microstructures. Additional studies are ongoing to evaluate the electrochemical performance of croissant graphite for LIB applications and to determine the experimental conditions necessary to tune on/off croissant formation so that it can be either optimized or suppressed depending on performance evaluation results. In addition to the discovery of croissant graphite, the graphitization process from the four coal ranks in general was successful. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the degree of graphitization (DoG) ranged from 12% to 80% in an early sample set, and further optimization on lignite coal produces a DoG of about 92%, which was spectacular to see as lignite is the lowest-rank coal. Thus, it is expected that the graphitization performance for higher-rank coals will be similar or better when optimized as well. The coal-derived graphite was used to make GO and rGO. Analytical characterization, e.g., by methods such as Raman spectroscopy, XRD, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and FESEM, showed that the sequence of converting the coal to graphite, exfoliating it to GO, and then chemically reducing the GO to rGO was successful. Although coal naturally contains aromatic compounds and some relatively small-sized condensed aromatic units, it does not contain graphene sheets. In the UCP process, the aromatic domains in the coals, particularly low-rank coals, are concentrated and condensed further into graphene sheets, which are ordered into a 3D stack during graphitization. The synthesized graphite is then unpacked by methods such as exfoliation to various graphene products. GQDs were synthesized from all four coal types, and their optical properties were demonstrated to be tunable by the coal precursor preprocessing treatments. In all four coal types, enhanced optical properties were observed for the produced GDQs with incremental improvements made to the coal precursors. GQDs produced from raw coal samples displayed lower ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy absorbance intensity compared to those obtained from cleaned and upgraded coal residues. The photoluminescence (PL) intensities also varied with pretreatment conditions and with the concentration of GQDs in aqueous solutions. GQDs obtained from anthracite show longer emission wavelengths and can be excited by visible light as opposed to GQDs derived from the other coal ranks. UV fluorescence 3D maps and spectra revealed that the emission wavelength at which the GQDs solutions display the highest intensity was slightly redshifted based on the coal precursor pretreatments. In low-rank coal (lignite and subbituminous) samples, two clusters were observed in the maps for GQDs, which may suggest that there are potentially two types of fluorophores in solution or two main size populations. The ability to tune the properties of GQDs based on processing methods can be exploited to make GQDs for various optical display or optoelectronics applications. The results also highlight the importance of removing coal-borne impurities to improve the quality of the coal precursor for preparation of graphene products. Coal and/or coal wastes preprocessing methods were developed and applied to clean and upgrade the coal precursors prior to graphitization and subsequent conversion to graphene products. The preprocessing methods involve high specific-gravity separations, mineral acid cleaning (no hydrofluoric acid), and subsequent upgrading by reducing the coal-borne heteroatom (nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen) content using proprietary chemical agents. Analytical characterization revealed that the preprocessing steps were successful, with ash reductions that range from 38% to 80% and residual ash content that was below the 5 wt% initial target. Based on proximate and ultimate analysis, the heteroatom reduction reactions produced upgraded coal residues with the oxygen content reduced by 8% to 24%, with additional reductions in the nitrogen and sulfur contents. An initial assessment of the waste streams from the UCP process shows very small to negligible environmental impact due to CO 2 , NO x , and SO x because most process steps are performed under inert atmosphere with argon. Consequently, reactive oxygen environments that tend to create these species are avoided. The inorganic and potentially hazardous species are released into aqueous waste streams that are easy to handle for proper disposal. The liquid waste streams were found to contain low-level concentrations of rare-earth elements (REEs), which could be concentrated and recovered as value-added by-products. Additionally, the volatile and gaseous fractions from carbonization and heat treatment contain useful organic compounds that can also be recovered as potential valuable by-products. Thus, the UCP technology is considered an environmentally sustainable and promising emerging technology for making high-value products from coal and coal wastes, with potential additional value-added by-products. Analysis of potential markets for the coal-derived carbon products shows a strong demand in both niche market sectors and across a wide variety of other industrial sectors. Graphite is currently considered a critical mineral commodity that has a large and growing demand in the LIB industry for EV applications. Based on data from Fortune Business Insights (2022) and Marketwatch (2023) reports, the average global graphite market is projected to reach about 33 billion by 2028, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 7%, with much of this growth expected to be in the LIB industry. GO and rGO have strong market potentials in various application areas, such as coatings for anticorrosion, anti-icing, and antimicrobial protection, thermal barriers, wear resistance, sensors, additive manufacturing such as 3D inks, and others. GQDs are the emerging key player in the bioimaging, photovoltaics, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) applications, with the potential to replace traditional semiconductor quantum dots (SQDs), which are based on metallic systems that are more toxic and more expensive. Biomedical applications of GQDs are becoming more attractive because of low to no toxicity and extremely low cost compared to SQDs. The major challenges for scale-up and commercialization of coal-derived carbon products such as graphene vary from the inherent attributes of graphene itself to reluctance to accept graphene in new manufacturing processes because of the uncertainty of the unknown. The 2D nature of graphene materials with a thickness of one atom presents significant challenges to proper handling/processing, and process scale-up becomes difficult because it requires high-end, expensive equipment, even for routine handling and analysis for quality assurance and control. Pristine graphene can also be extremely difficult to work into other matrices, thus hindering downstream processibility, especially at large scale. Currently, the cost of graphene and graphene products is still high and presents an economic risk that tends to slow down investment in scaling up emerging technologies. The lack of a standard for graphene materials for quality assurance and quality control poses a great challenge not only for the markets but also for commercialization efforts. A first-look economic feasibility analysis of the UCP technology provided valuable information that suggests the UCP process would be feasible, especially when it is scaled to a pilot scale and could be more competitive at the full scale. Graphitization was found to be the most energy-consuming and most capital-intensive step in the overall process. In small laboratory- and bench-scale experiments, labor is a significant contributor to the total process costs. Although these energy, capital, and labor constraints contribute to a higher selling price for the product, a preliminary economic model suggests that the process would be feasible at large scale when the process is fully integrated, optimized, and automated.
In this report we present work performed in Fiscal Year 2022 that demonstrates the modeling and simulation of a fully coupled neutronics thermal hydraulics reference plant model for a fluoride-cooled high-temperature pebble-bed reactor. The multiphysics model is developed on the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s Comprehensive Reactor Analysis Bundle (BlueCRAB) available on the Idaho National Laboratory’s high-performance computer, which natively and seamlessly couples Griffin, Pronghorn, and the BISON Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment based applications. Griffin provides reactor physics capabilities, including depletion to the equilibrium core, k-eigenvalue, adjoint, and transient. The unique direct equilibrium core capability in Griffin is based on a streamline methodology to spatially deplete the pebbles into burnup groups. Pronghorn solves the porous medium equations for the fluid regions and conduction in the solid regions and incorporates a fluidic diode model to simulate the transition from forced to natural convection during accident scenarios. MOOSE modules solves thermal conduction problems for the pebbles and tristructural isotropic in the pebble-bed core, thus providing the fuel and moderator spatial fields for each pebble burnup group. The neutronics feedback relies primarily on fuel, moderator, and reflector temperatures as as well as the FLiBe salt density. Here, we present results for the uncoupled equilibrium core and perform comparisons to equivalent Monte Carlo models. The power distributions and kinetic parameters obtained with Griffin are consistent with those computed with Griffin. We demonstrate a noticeable improvement with the use of discrete ordinates method (SN) transport. The coupled steady-state equilibrium core provides the initial condition for two time-dependent problems: a control rod withdrawal event and an unprotected loss of flow event. In both cases, the reactor design is self-stabilizing and the solutions are consistent with the expected physics. Although this model is prototypical regarding BlueCRAB’s capabilities, its results are consistent with published work by Kairos Power and other research entities. Significant improvements to the model are planned in future work.
At the National Ignition Facility (NIF), lasers are used to compress a double shell capsule with deuterium and tritium in order to create nuclear fusion processes. The lasers aim at the inside of a gold hohlraum which excite electrons which further release photons in the range of 0~20keV. The photons randomly disperse, ultimately either going towards the fuel capsule or back out the laser entrance holes. The photons that go towards the fuel capsule work towards the compression of the multi-shell capsule whereas the photons that leave the hohlraum have a chance at being picked up by the Lawrence Livermore National Lab’s ‘Dante’ photon detector. ‘Dante’ analyzes photon data by having 18 planar vacuum x-ray diodes (XRD) behind unique filters to differentiate data amongst various photon energies. The goal of the project was to analyze the characteristics of low and high energy photons released by the gold shell.