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DOE OSTI2023

Stable isotopes contain substantial additive information about terrestrial carbon and water cycling

Abstract Stable isotope ratios of H ( δ 2 H ), O ( δ 18 O), and C ( δ 13 C) are linked to key biogeochemical processes of the water and carbon cycles; however, the degree to which isotope-associated processes are reflected in macroscale ecosystem flux observations remains unquantified. Here through formal information assessment, new measurements of δ 13 C of net ecosystem exchange ( NEE ) as well as δ 2 H and δ 18 O of latent heat ( LH ) fluxes across the United States National Ecological Observation Network (NEON) are used to determine conditions under which isotope measurements are informative of environmental exchanges. We find all three isotopic datasets individually contain comparable amounts of information about NEE and LH fluxes as wind speed observations. Such information from isotope measurements, however, is largely unique. Generally, δ 13 C provides more information about LH as aridity increases or mean annual precipitation decreases. δ 2 H provides more information about LH as temperatures or mean annual precipitation decreases, and also provides more information about NEE as temperatures decrease. Overall, we show that the stable isotope datasets collected by NEON contribute non-trivial amounts of new information about bulk environmental fluxes useful for interpreting biogeochemical and ecohydrological processes at landscape scales. However, the utility of this new information varies with environmental conditions at continental scales. This study provides an approach for quantifying the value adding non-traditional sensing approaches to environmental monitoring sites and the patterns identified here are expected to aid in modeling and data interpretation efforts focused on constraining carbon and water cycles’ mechanisms.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Mobilization of mercury from contaminated creekbank soils

The industrial use of mercury (Hg) led to the contamination of numerous watersheds worldwide, including the East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC) in Tennessee, USA. Mercury can accumulate in creek banks and floodplain soils and is mobilized into downstream environments due to erosion from precipitation and flooding. Here, this study aimed to evaluate the geochemical conditions contributing to the release of Hg from contaminated soils in this watershed. Bank soil samples from the EFPC watershed with total Hg concentrations ranging from 27.2 to 1,425 mg·kg −1 were used in a series of batch experiments with artificial creek water at a solid-to-solution ratio of 1:30 to assess Hg release. Additional experiments examined Hg release across different soil size fractions and solid-to-solution ratios, as well as the effect of dissolved organic matter and time on Hg mobilization. Mercury release ranged from 0.011 to 0.17% of the total soil Hg and is correlated with total Hg concentrations. Variations in release among size fractions suggested heterogeneous distribution of labile Hg species. Results indicated two distinct solubility regimes depending on solid-to-solution ratios. Dissolved organic matter enhanced Hg release, and time-dependent experiments showed that changes in mercury speciation could decrease dissolved Hg concentrations over time. Identifying conditions that promote Hg mobilization from contaminated soils improves our understanding of Hg fluxes into downstream environments. Key factors influencing mercury release include soil characteristics, water chemistry, and temporal changes in mercury speciation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Microbiological and geochemical characterization of As-bearing tailings and underlying sediments

Over the past 100 years, extensive oxidation of As-bearing sulfide-rich tailings from the abandoned Long Lake Gold Mine (Canada) has resulted in the formation of acid mine drainage (pH 2.0-3.9) containing high concentrations of dissolved As (similar to 400 mg L -1 ), SO 4 2- , Fe and other metals. Dissolved As is predominantly present as As(III), with increased As(V) near the tailings surface. Pore-gas O 2 is depleted to < 1 vol% in the upper 30-80 cm of the tailings profile. The primary sulfides, pyrite and arsenopyrite, are highly oxidized in the upper portions of the tailings. Elevated proportions of sulfide-oxidizing prokaryotes are present in this zone (mean 32.3% of total reads). The tailings are underlain by sediments rich in organic C. Enrichment in δ 34 S-SO 4 in pore-water samples in the organic C-rich zone is consistent with dissimilatory sulfate reduction. Synchrotron-based spectroscopy indicates an abundance of ferric arsenate phases near the impoundment surface and the presence of secondary arsenic sulfides in the organic-C beneath the tailings. The persistence of elevated As concentrations beneath the tailings indicates precipitation of secondary As sulfides is not sufficient to completely remove dissolved As. The oxidation of sulfides and release of As is expected to continue for decades. The findings will inform future remediation efforts and provide a foundation for the long-term monitoring of the effectiveness of the remediation program.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Environmental Impacts of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement on Leaching of Metals into Groundwater

To investigate the environmental impacts of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) while it was freshly processed (i.e. hot mixed asphalt or HMA) and after being subjected to weathering, three RAP materials, namely north-RAP, central-RAP, south-RAP, from three plants and one fresh HMA loose mix sample (Fresh-HMA) throughout New Jersey, USA underwent four different weathering processes including: Ultraviolet (UV) and precipitation weathering on unbounded RAP, UV and precipitation weathering on compacted RAP, weathering by heat and moisture cycles, and groundwater flow-through leaching. Batch experiments were conducted to mimic releasing of trace elements in weak acidic leachate from landfills. North-RAP and central-RAP released levels of Pb greater than the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) primary drinking water maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 15 µg/L. Novel two-column experiments (a RAP column followed by a soil column) were conducted to investigate the release of trace elements from RAP and the attenuation effect of soil on potential pollutants. The results of these experiments showed that pollutants released from RAPs such as Mn and Ni were largely attenuated in the soil. The results suggest that RAP can be used as an unbound material in environments except those acidic (i.e., pH < 5 as in mines with sulfur-containing minerals and landfills with acidic environment).

batch extraction↗

DOE OSTI2025

CROCUS Low Cost All-in-One Weather Station AMB-001 Data Argonne National Laboratory Prairie Site

The Ambient Weather WS-2902D (AMB) is a low cost weather station that has become very useful for filling data gaps in harder to deploy locations. These low cost weather stations collect 13 second data, which is averaged to a five minute data output available to users through an API key. The data files contain measurements for precipitation, temperature, wind chill/heat index, relative humidity, dew point, UV index, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction, wind gust, and with an external particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5) sensor. Having all of these measurements in one condense system allows for fast deploying and dense network capabilities. Three of the AMB weather stations were deployed at the Argonne Testbed for Multiscale Observational Science (ATMOS), a 20-acre prairie site at Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, Illinois. The instruments are denoted by their three digit identifier (CMS-AMB-xxx) format. The data is presented as daily NetCDF (.nc) files, each containing approximately 24 hours of observations. Files follow the naming convention of: the project (CROCUS), location (atmos), instrument name (CMS-AMB-001), data level (raw, a1), and date (year, month, day). The NetCDF format can be accessed using common scientific software such as Python using xarray, netCDF4 or ACT-DOE.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

CROCUS Low Cost All-in-One Weather Station AMB-004 Data Argonne National Laboratory Prairie Site

The Ambient Weather WS-2902D (AMB) is a low cost weather station that has become very useful for filling data gaps in harder to deploy locations. These low cost weather stations collect 13 second data, which is averaged to a five minute data output available to users through an Application Programming Interface (API) key. The data files contain measurements for precipitation, temperature, wind chill/heat index, relative humidity, dew point, UV index, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction, wind gust, and with an external particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5) sensor. Having all of these measurements in one condense system allows for fast deploying and dense network capabilities. Three of the AMB weather stations were deployed at the Argonne Testbed for Multiscale Observational Science (ATMOS), a 20-acre prairie site at Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, Illinois. The instruments are denoted by their three digit identifier (CMS-AMB-xxx) format. The data is presented as daily NetCDF (.nc) files, each containing approximately 24 hours of observations. Files follow the naming convention of: the project (CROCUS), location (atmos), instrument name (CMS-AMB-004), data level (raw, a1), and date (year, month, day). The NetCDF format can be accessed using common scientific software such as Python using xarray, netCDF4 or ACT-DOE.

EARTH SCIENCE > ATMOSPHERE > AEROSOLS > PARTICULAT↗

DOE OSTI2023

Using root and soil traits to forecast woody encroachment dynamics in mesic grassland

Grasslands are a widespread and globally important biome providing key ecosystem services including C storage and regulation of the water cycle. Grasslands face multiple threats, including changes in drought intensity and woody encroachment - a process that results in increased woody plant abundance corresponding with decreased herbaceous plant abundance. The combination of reduced soil moisture and shifts in plant dominance from herbaceous to woody are likely to alter C pools in the soil profile. We currently do not have the capacity to predict either the magnitude or rates of change in these C pools. In order to predict changes in grassland vegetation structure and the associated impacts on C cycling requires greater understanding of changes in soil C pools at multiple soil depths, and the responses of these pools to changes in precipitation. To support and perform this parameterization of Land Surface Models, we performed detailed investigations of root (anatomical and physiological) and soil traits (microbial function) at varying soil depths, to capture the belowground impacts of changing dominant plant growth forms (grasses to shrubs) and the impacts of frequent drought.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Produced water softening using high-pH catholyte from brine electrolysis: reducing chemical transportation and environmental footprints

This study evaluates the benefits of using brine electrolysis for generating caustic soda (NaOH) and free chlorine for on-site produced water (PWs 1 ) treatment. A two-compartment electrochemical cell was shown to generate NaOH solutions (pH > 12, faradic efficiency 93%) and chlorine (faradic efficiency 32%) from a NaCl brine solution at a current density of 10 mA/cm2. The catholyte was used for softening field-collected PWs. The degree of Mg removal depends mostly on the catholyte/PW mixture pH with pH 11 achieving >90% removal. Ca removal is poor (<10%) due to low bicarbonate alkalinity in the PWs. Soda ash alone at a dose equivalent to the total hardness of the PWs helps CaCO3 precipitation and Ca removal (>90%). The combined treatment of the catholyte and a reduced quantity of soda ash achieves better or comparable Ca removal compared to the full stoichiometric amounts of soda ash alone. Ba and Sr removal patterns closely follow those of Ca, suggesting co-precipitation of these cations as the primary removal mechanism. Organic removal is negligible during chemical softening; however, activated carbon filtration achieves >90% of total organic carbon (TOC) removal in all PWs. A treatment scheme is proposed for field generation of caustic soda and chlorine from PW. The economic analysis demonstrates the significant cost-effectiveness of the approach compared to purchasing the NaOH.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2023

Unraveling the 2021 Central Tennessee flood event using a hierarchical multi-model inundation modeling framework

Flood prediction systems need hierarchical atmospheric, hydrologic, and hydraulic models to predict rainfall, runoff, streamflow, and floodplain inundation. The accuracy of such systems depends on the error propagation through the modeling chain, sensitivity to input data, and choice of models. In this study, we used multiple precipitation forcings (hindcast and forecast) to drive hydrologic and hydrodynamic models to analyze the impacts of various drivers on the estimates of flood inundation depth and extent. We implement this framework to unravel the August 2021 extreme flooding event that occurred in Central Tennessee, USA. We used two radar-based quantitative precipitation estimates (STAGE4 and MRMS) as well as quantitative precipitation forecasts (QPF) from the National Weather Service Weather Prediction Center (WPC) to drive a series of models in the hierarchical framework, including the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) land surface model, the Routing Application for Parallel Computation of Discharge (RAPID) river routing model, and the AutoRoute and TRITON inundation models. An evaluation with observed high-water marks demonstrates that the framework can reasonably simulate flood inundation. Despite the complex error propagation mechanism of the modeling chain, we show that inundation estimates are most sensitive to rainfall estimates. Most notably, QPF significantly underestimates flood magnitudes and inundations leading to unanticipated severe flooding for all stakeholders involved in the event. Finally, we discuss the implications of the hydrodynamic modeling framework for real-time flood forecasting.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Quasi‐Steady State Supersaturation: Do High Values Derived From ESCAPE Represent Real High Supersaturations and the Potential for Condensational Invigoration?

Deep convective clouds were intensively sampled during the Experiment of Sea Breeze Convection, Aerosols, Precipitation, and Environment (ESCAPE) with coordinated flights of the NRC Convair-580 and SPEC Learjet. A total of 219 updraft core segments were sampled over coastal Texas and Louisiana under diverse meteorological conditions. Median updraft properties included widths of ∼1 km, velocities of 4.8 m s −1 , droplet number concentrations of ∼400 cm −3 , and liquid water contents of 0.9 g m −3 . The limitations of using the quasi-steady state approximation to derive supersaturations were explored. Supersaturation (S QSS ) estimated from in situ observations under a quasi-steady state assumption averaged 0.4% but occasionally exceeded 2%, with values >1% (high supersaturations) identified as statistical outliers. Two case studies illustrated the conditions linked to high supersaturations. In a storm over the Gulf, median core S QSS reached 2.46% in the developing stage compared to 2.17% in the mature stage under similar thermodynamic conditions. In a storm over coastal Louisiana, S QSS peaked near 11% within a 13.7-m s −1 updraft, accompanied by predominantly supercooled liquid droplets at −13°C and exceptionally low diameter concentrations of 0.29 mm cm −3 . Bootstrap analysis of all sampled cores showed that high supersaturations are most probable in cold and mixed-phase regimes with moderate to strong updrafts and are strongly influenced by vertical velocity and droplet number concentrations. In conclusion, while extreme supersaturations (∼10%) were rare, their occurrence underscores the need for targeted multiplatform observations to resolve their spatiotemporal variability and assess their potential role in deep convective invigoration.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

An Investigation on the Spatial Dependence of Autoconversion and Accretion in Eastern North Atlantic Boundary Layer Clouds (Final Report)

In many climate models, small clouds over the ocean rain too often and too lightly. This affects the amount of water in the clouds and ultimately the area covered by clouds both of which must be predicted by climate models. This in turn impacts how much sunlight these clouds can reflect to space and ultimately has a significant impact on the Earth radiation balance and climate. The purpose of this project was to use cloud and precipitation data being collected by DOE to evaluate the spatial variability of boundary layer clouds and precipitation, and the relationships between them with a view towards improving the representation of the physics that control the generation of precipitation in models.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Multifrequency radar observations of clouds and precipitation including the G-band

Abstract. Observations collected during the 25 February 2020 deployment of the Vapor In-Cloud Profiling Radar at the Stony Brook Radar Observatory clearly demonstrate the potential of G-band radars for cloud and precipitation research, something that until now was only discussed in theory. The field experiment, which coordinated an X-, Ka-, W- and G-band radar, revealed that the Ka–G pairing can generate differential reflectivity signal several decibels larger than the traditional Ka–W pairing underpinning an increased sensitivity to smaller amounts of liquid and ice water mass and sizes. The observations also showed that G-band signals experience non-Rayleigh scattering in regions where Ka- and W-band signal do not, thus demonstrating the potential of G-band radars for sizing sub-millimeter ice crystals and droplets. Observed peculiar radar reflectivity patterns also suggest that G-band radars could be used to gain insight into the melting behavior of small ice crystals. G-band signal interpretation is challenging, because attenuation and non-Rayleigh effects are typically intertwined. An ideal liquid-free period allowed us to use triple-frequency Ka–W–G observations to test existing ice scattering libraries, and the results raise questions on their comprehensiveness. Overall, this work reinforces the importance of deploying radars (1) with sensitivity sufficient enough to detect small Rayleigh scatters at cloud top in order to derive estimates of path-integrated hydrometeor attenuation, a key constraint for microphysical retrievals; (2) with sensitivity sufficient enough to overcome liquid attenuation, to reveal the larger differential signals generated from using the G-band as part of a multifrequency deployment; and (3) capable of monitoring atmospheric gases to reduce related uncertainty.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Selective material recovery from solution

Embodiments relate to methods for generating selected materials from a natural brine, where the natural brine is sea water, saline water, fresh water, synthetic solutions, or industrial liquid wastes. A natural brine comprising at least a portion of a selected material is heated. CO 2 is added and mixes with the natural brine forming a mixture such that the CO 2 /P is a first predetermined value. The mixture is held so that impurities in the natural brine precipitate as solids leaving a second brine substantially comprising the selected material. The second brine is heated. CO 2 gas is injected into the second brine, mixing so that the CO 2 /P is a second predetermined value. The mixture is held so that the selected material precipitates out and are removed.

Nakano, Jinichiro↗

DOE OSTI2021

Comparative geochemistry of flowback chemistry from the Utica/Point Pleasant and Marcellus formations

Flowback/Produced fluid samples were collected from several wells from two Utica/Point Pleasant (UPP) sites (UPPW and UPPS) in Ohio, and one Marcellus (Marcellus Shale Energy and Environment Laboratory (MSEEL)) site in West Virginia over a period of approximately two years. Although these formations have different ages, depositional environments, diagenetic histories, and geochemical and mineralogical compositions (i.e. the UPP is significantly more carbonate rich than the Marcellus which is more siliceous), analysis of trends in fluid species over time shows that, overall, the TDS and major solubilized elements (Na, Ca, Cl) in the UPP and Marcellus brines are remarkably similar. Total dissolved solutes (TDS) in these brines ranged from approximately 40 to 250 g/L salt, and in general, concentrations increased with time elapsed since natural gas well completion and stimulation. The behavior of Na, Br, and Cl suggests that the produced water signatures from these formations are largely derived from the native formational brines which display evidence of originating from evaporated seawater. There is a strong correlation between Cl and Br, indicating that both species behave conservatively, and the similarity among each of these brines suggests no appreciable contribution of salt from halite dissolution because Br is excluded from the halite structure. Cl/Br ratios in the brines range from ~80 to 120 (mg/L/mg/L). Other elements, such as K, which readily reacts between fluids and ion exchange sites on clays, generally exhibit conservative behavior for an individual site, but show significant variations among each of the different well pads. The concentrations of Sr and Ba vary dramatically among well sites, and increase with respect to Cl- over time, suggesting increasing solubilization, presumably from desorption from clay minerals or dissolution of carbonates or sulfates from the source formation(s). The UPPW well site has very low Ba due to high-sulfate input fluid, which resulted in precipitation of barite/celestite in the brines. In contrast the UPPS well site had elevated Sr (~ 3500 mg/L), presumably due to the use of Sr-rich recycled brine used in hydraulic fracturing. The Marcellus site had the highest Ba concentrations (up to 10 g/L) and highest Ba/Sr ratios in the fluids, due to the high concentration of barium in the Marcellus target (~ 1000 ppm, as compared to ~200 ppm in the UPP). These observations suggest that solutes in the FP fluids are derived from native brines, water-rock interactions that have occurred over geologic time scales, as well as some contribution from contemporaneous reactions in the subsurface. The results also show that the composition of the injected fluid can influence flowback fluid chemistry and possibly production efficiency.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Removal of Calcium and Silica from Simulated Blowdown Water Using CO 2 -Assisted Magnesium Electrocoagulation

Blowdown water from various industries and cooling facilities contains high concentrations of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), silica, and corrosion inhibitors, which render the water unsuitable for discharge into surface water and wastewater treatment plants. Electrocoagulation (EC) is effective at removing Ca and silica. Here, in this study, Mg-alloy electrodes EC resulted in ∼91% silica removal at a 5400 C/L charge loading. Ca removal, however, was only 31%. To enhance Ca removal, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) containing gas was introduced. CO 2 addition formed carbonate ions, which reacted with Ca/Mg ions to generate carbonate precipitates. Introducing 5% and 14% CO 2 , simulating natural gas-fired and coal-fired flue gas, enhanced Ca removal to 38% and 47%, respectively. Pure CO 2 facilitated 70% Ca removal, more than two times higher than that without CO 2 , while maintaining high silica removal. FTIR, XRD, and SEM-EDS analyses confirmed enhanced Ca/Mg carbonate formation upon CO 2 . In situ Raman spectroscopy was employed to monitor carbonate-ions formation. The results demonstrated carbonate-ions removal through Ca-carbonate formation after CO 2 addition. A techno-economic assessment showed that recycled electrode materials and flue gas lead to ∼3 times lower cost compared with conventional silica/Ca removal through chemical coagulation, softening, or membrane filtration. The study demonstrated that CO 2 addition removes high concentrations of Ca and silica ions from wastewaters at a competitive cost.

blowdown water↗

DOE OSTI2024

A Fresh Take: Seasonal Changes in Terrestrial Freshwater Inputs Impact Salt Marsh Hydrology and Vegetation Dynamics

Abstract Salt marshes exist at the terrestrial-marine interface, providing important ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. Tidal inputs play a dominant role in salt marsh porewater mixing, and terrestrially derived freshwater inputs are increasingly recognized as important sources of water and solutes to intertidal wetlands. However, there remains a critical gap in understanding the role of freshwater inputs on salt marsh hydrology, and how this may impact marsh subsurface salinity and plant productivity. Here, we address this knowledge gap by examining the hydrologic behavior, porewater salinity, and pickleweed ( Sarcocornia pacifica also known as Salicornia pacifica) plant productivity along a salt marsh transect in an estuary along the central coast of California. Through the installation of a suite of hydrometric sensors and routine porewater sampling and vegetation surveys, we sought to understand how seasonal changes in terrestrial freshwater inputs impact salt marsh ecohydrologic processes. We found that salt marsh porewater salinity, shallow subsurface saturation, and pickleweed productivity are closely coupled with elevated upland water level during the winter and spring, and more influenced by tidal inputs during the summer and fall. This seasonal response indicates a switch in salt marsh hydrologic connectivity with the terrestrial upland that impacts ecosystem functioning. Through elucidating the interannual impacts of drought on salt marsh hydrology, we found that the severity of drought and historical precipitation can impact contemporary hydrologic behavior and the duration and timing of the upland-marsh hydrologic connectivity. This implies that the sensitivity of salt marshes to climate change involves a complex interaction between sea level rise and freshwater inputs that vary at seasonal to interannual timescales.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Amazon and La Plata River Basins as Moisture Sources of South America: Climatology and Intraseasonal Variability

Abstract Land‐atmosphere interactions are critical for precipitation (PPT) over South America where terrestrial evapotranspiration (ET) constitutes a significant fraction of moisture for rainfall over the ecologically and socio‐economically vital Amazon (AMZ) and La Plata (LPB) river basins. We quantify the contribution of ET from AMZ and LPB to PPT over the continent with a focus on the intraseasonal time scale. Using numerical water tracers embedded in the Weather Research and Forecasting model we track the moisture originating from the two basins. Our findings indicate that approximately 40% of annual rainfall over the eastern foothills of the Andes originates as AMZ ET, and nearly 30% of rainfall over northern Argentina originates as LPB ET. Analysis of moisture transport during both phases of the dominant intraseasonal oscillation pattern over South America reveals an intraseasonal “sloshing” of LPB moisture between the South Atlantic convergence zone (SACZ) and southeastern South America (SESA) regions. AMZ and LPB each supply approximately 6% of moisture for SACZ PPT during periods of intraseasonal enhancement (positive anomalies), highlighting the importance of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean. For the SESA region, LPB supplies 26% of the moisture for PPT during periods of intraseasonal enhancement while AMZ supplies 5%.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Investigating the Relative Roles of INPs and CCN in a Simulated Thunderstorm Using a New Immersion Freezing Algorithm

Microphysical processes in deep convective clouds are sensitive to the number concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nucleating particles (INPs), but the effects of INPs are less studied. Modeling studies investigating the effects of INPs and/or CCN on deep convection typically retain a volume‐dependent raindrop freezing relation. The resulting neglect of aerosol accumulation in raindrops via drop collisions has likely produced unrealistic storm responses to INPs in past studies. To address this deficiency, a new immersion freezing algorithm was developed and embedded in a bulk microphysics scheme that freezes both cloud drops and raindrops using the same immersion freezing INP (IF‐INP) activity spectrum based on measurements. Multiple idealized simulations of a single case of deep convection observed during the Clouds, Aerosols, and Complex Terrain Interactions (CACTI) field campaign were conducted, with microphysical differences produced by independently altering IF‐INP temperature dependencies and CCN number concentrations from their observed values. Surface precipitation in all simulations resulted almost exclusively from riming graupel that melted upon descending to the surface. Rainfall and cold pools were substantially and systematically weakened with increased CCN due to decreased graupel riming rates but were relatively insensitive to variations in the magnitude and slope of IF‐INP spectra due to compensating depletion of supercooled liquid water. These compensating processes were a consequence of the accumulation of IF‐INPs in raindrops, encouraging caution in studying IF‐INP effects upon thunderstorms using traditional volume‐dependent drop freezing relationships.

CCN↗