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At least 991 records · Page 55
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

High-frequency Data Integration for Landscape Model Calibration of Carbon Fluxes Across Diverse Tidal Marshes

Terrestrial Aquatic Interfaces (TAIs), and tidal wetlands in particular, store large amounts of carbon yet are not well represented in Earth System Models (ESMs). Predictions of carbon cycling and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in tidal wetlands are highly uncertain. Eddy covariance (EC) towers provide ecosystem-scale GHG flux data at a temporal resolution (every 30min) that is helpful for parameterizing and improving mechanistic realism in ESMs. We propose to use a network of eddy covariance towers and standardized ancillary data streams, along with mesocosm experiments and statistical analyses, across diverse tidal wetlands of North America to develop and improve biogeochemical modeling at the TAI. Our overarching objective is to improve understanding and process-based modeling of gross primary productivity (GPP) and CH4 emission responses, both non-linear and asynchronous, to stressors including plant inundation, disturbance, salinity and nitrogen loading.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Crankcase Gas Rerouting/Filtration System to Reduce Crankcase Methane Emissions from Leanburn NG Engines

The U.S. has the opportunity to transform the energy sector by aggressively expanding the use of abundant, domestic natural gas (NG) as a fuel. With the intrinsic composition of NG having a higher H:C ratio (~3.6) than that of diesel (H:C ~ 1.8), lower levels of CO 2 , the preeminent greenhouse gas (GHG), are generated during combustion. A major challenge is the emissions abatement of the primary NG constituent methane (CH4). Its inherent stability makes it a potent GHG. Lean-burn NG engines used to drive compressors in the NG supply chain, generate electricity, and repower ships are substantial sources of methane emissions.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dual-pump Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering measurements in H 2 /CH 4 Counterflow Flames

Temperature and major species concentration measurements are reported in a Williams Seshadri counterflow burner using dual-pump coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (DPCARS). Hencken burner H2/Air flames with equivalence ratio of 0.8-1.4 were used to characterize the accuracy of the system. The mean errors for temperature, XH2/XN2 mole fraction ratio, and XO2/XN2 mole fraction ratio are 1.0%, 14.7%, and 5.5%, respectively. The counterflow burner uses a CH4, H2, and N2 mixture as fuel and synthetic air as oxidizer. Measurements were performed along the counterflow burner central axis for two different fuel compositions: 4% H2/86% CH4/10% N2 and 87%H2/3% CH4/10% N2. The measured temperature and species mole fractions agree well with the 1-D opposed-flow diffusion flame simulation. One observation is that the fuel inlet temperature is higher than 300 K, which suggests the possibility of the stagnation plane residing closer to the fuel side. Lastly, these measurements provide valuable data for testing and validation of advanced 2-D flame models.

Murdock, Benjamin K.↗
DOE OSTI2024

SPRUCE: Carbon Dioxide and Methane Soil Flux Measurements at High Temporal Resolution, Beginning in 2022

This data set contains high temporal resolution measurements of greenhouse gas flux (CO2 and CH4) from the SPRUCE (Spruce and Peatland Responses Under Changing Environments) experiment (Hanson et al. 2017) over the growing seasons in 2022 (30-minute resolution) and 2023 (15-minute resolution). Additional data will be appended to this dataset periodically until the close out of the SPRUCE experiment in 2025. This dataset contains two data files in comma-separate (*.csv) format. ABB GLA131-GGA CO2/CH4 gas analyzers, each paired with an Eosense eosMX multiplexer and 2 eosAC-LT automated flux chambers, were deployed from during the 2022 and 2023 growing seasons (2022-06-06 – 2023-10-26). Each SPRUCE experimental enclosure included two Eosense 50 cm diameter flux chambers with 40 cm tall stainless steel collars embedded approximately 15 cm into the peat soil, to measure soil gas flux of peatland ecosystem moss-shrub communities. . Measurements were taken for three minutes, alternating between the flux chambers, with each Eosense flux chamber sampling gas fluxes four times per hour in 2023 and twice per hour for 2022. In addition, time-series environmental data measured at the flux chamber are included: Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), soil temperature, soil volumetric water content (at 10 cm depth), air temperature, soil temperature (0-200 cm depth), and volumetric water at 20 cm depth.

Spruce and Peatland Responses Under Changing Envir↗
DOE OSTI2021

Permian Basin: in-situ tower greenhouse gas data

The Permian Basin in-situ greenhouse gas network was designed to measure atmospheric mole fractions of methane to be used in conjunction with transport modeling to determine methane emissions from the Permian Basin oil and natural gas extraction area in Texas/New Mexico. The current network includes 5 measurement sites with continuous measurements of CH4, 4 sites with measurements of CO2, 2 sites with measurements of the isotopic ratio of methane, and 1 site with measurements of H2S.

Monteiro, V.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Hidden Processes During Seasonal Isolation of a High-Altitude Watershed

Biogeochemical processes capable of altering global carbon systems occur frequently in Earth’s Critical Zone–the area spanning from vegetation canopy to saturated bedrock–yet many of these phenomena are difficult to detect. Observation of these processes is limited by the seasonal inaccessibility of remote ecosystems, such as those in mountainous, snow- and ice-dominated areas. This isolation leads to a distinct gap in biogeochemical knowledge that ultimately affects the accuracy and confidence with which these ecosystems can be computationally modeled for the purpose of projecting change under different climate scenarios. To examine a high-altitude, headwater ecosystem’s role in methanogenesis, sulfate reduction, and groundwater-surface water exchange, water samples were continuously collected from the river and hyporheic zones (HZ) during winter isolation in the East River (ER), CO watershed. Measurements of continuously collected ER surface water revealed up to 50 μM levels of dissolved methane in July through September, while samples from 12 cm deep in the hyporheic zone at the same location showed a spring to early summer peak in methane with a strong biogenic signature (<65 μM, δ13C-CH4, -60.76‰) before declining. Continuously collected δ 18 O-H 2 O and δ 2 H-H 2 O isotopes from the water column exhibited similar patterns to discrete measurements, while samples 12 cm deep in the hyporheic zone experienced distinct fluctuations in δ 18 O-H 2 O, alluding to significant groundwater interactions. Continuously collected microbial communities in the river in the late fall and early winter revealed diverse populations that reflect the taxonomic composition of ecologically similar river systems, including taxa indicative of methane cycling in this system. These measurements captured several biogeochemical components of the high-altitude watershed in response to seasonality, strengthening our understanding of these systems during the winter months.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Efficient Hydrogen Delivery for Microbial Electrosynthesis via 3D-Printed Cathodes

The efficient delivery of electrochemically in situ produced H 2 can be a key advantage of microbial electrosynthesis over traditional gas fermentation. However, the technical details of how to supply large amounts of electric current per volume in a biocompatible manner remain unresolved. Here, we explored for the first time the flexibility of complex 3D-printed custom electrodes to fine tune H 2 delivery during microbial electrosynthesis. Using a model system for H 2 -mediated electromethanogenesis comprised of 3D fabricated carbon aerogel cathodes plated with nickel-molybdenum and Methanococcus maripaludis, we showed that novel 3D-printed cathodes facilitated sustained and efficient electromethanogenesis from electricity and CO 2 at an unprecedented volumetric production rate of 2.2 L CH4 /L catholyte /day and at a coulombic efficiency of 99%. Importantly, our experiments revealed that the efficiency of this process strongly depends on the current density. At identical total current supplied, larger surface area cathodes enabled higher methane production and minimized escape of H 2 . Specifically, low current density (<1 mA/cm 2 ) enabled by high surface area cathodes was found to be critical for fast start-up times of the microbial culture, stable steady state performance, and high coulombic efficiencies. Our data demonstrate that 3D-printing of electrodes presents a promising design tool to mitigate effects of bubble formation and local pH gradients within the boundary layer and, thus, resolve key critical limitations for in situ electron delivery in microbial electrosynthesis.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Limited effects of tannin supplementation on the dairy cattle fecal microbiome with modulation of metabolites

Tannins are plant secondary metabolites that bind organic carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), potentially altering substrate bioavailability for enteric fermentation in ruminants. This interaction may reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and influence nitrogen partitioning. Given tannins' resistance to ruminal degradation and persistence through the gastrointestinal tract, this study investigated the effects of a tannin-based feed additive on fecal microbial diversity, fecal chemical composition, and GHG emissions. Twenty-four early- to mid-lactation dairy cows were randomized to receive either a tannin-based feed additive (TRT; containing condensed and hydrolyzable tannins from Schinopsis quebracho-colorado [Schltdl.]) or a control diet (CON) for 64 days. Cows were blocked by parity, dry matter intake, milk yield, body weight, and days in milk. Fecal samples were collected on days 0, 16, 32, and 64 and analyzed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Fecal C, N, and indole-3-lactate were measured, and GHG emissions (N2O, CH4, CO2) were assessed via 14-day laboratory incubation. A total of 1,538 amplicon sequence variants were identified, with Firmicutes as the dominant phylum. Fecal phylogenetic diversity showed a significant treatment × day interaction (p < 0.01), with TRT cows exhibiting reduced microbial diversity from day 16 to 64. Fecal C and N concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.01) in TRT cows on day 16, while indole-3-lactate levels were higher on day 64 (p = 0.02). GHG emissions did not differ significantly between treatments. The tannin-based feed additive influenced fecal microbial community structure and select chemical parameters but did not significantly affect GHG emissions from feces. These findings suggest that dietary tannins may modulate gut microbial ecology with minimal impact on downstream manure-related emissions.

Klein, Matthew L↗
DOE OSTI2021

Atomic Layer Deposition of Nanolayered Carbon Films

In this paper, carbon thin films were grown using the plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PE-ALD). Methane (CH4) was used as the carbon precursor to grow the carbon thin film. The grown film was analyzed by the high-resolution transmission electron micrograph (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis, and Raman spectrum analysis. The analyses show that the PE-ALD-grown carbon film has an amorphous structure. It was found that the existence of defective sites (nanoscale holes or cracks) on the substrate of copper foil could facilitate the formation of nanolayered carbon films. The mechanism for the formation of nanolayered carbon film in the nanoscale holes was discussed. This finding could be used for the controlled growth of nanolayered carbon films or other two-dimensional nanomaterials while combining with modern nanopatterning techniques.

Xiao, Zhigang (ORCID:0000000215950565)↗
DOE OSTI2022

Integration of Electromagnetic Geophysics Forward Simulation in Coupled Flow and Geomechanics for Monitoring a Gas Hydrate Deposit Located in the Ulleung Basin, East Sea, Korea

We investigate the feasibility of electromagnetic (EM) geophysics methods to detect the dissociation of gas hydrate specifically from a gas hydrate deposit located in the Ulleung Basin, East Sea, Korea via an integrated flow-geomechanics-EM geophysics simulation. To this end, coupled flow and geomechanics simulation is first performed with the multiple porosity model employed, where a mixed formulation with the finite volume (FV) and finite element (FE) methods are taken for the flow and geomechanics, respectively. From the saturation and porosity fields obtained from the coupled flow and geomechanics, the electrical conductivity model is established for the EM simulation. Solving the partial differential equation of electrical diffusion which is linearized using the 3D finite element method (FEM), the EM fields are then computed. For numerical experiments, particularly two approaches in the configuration for the EM methods are compared in this contribution: the surface-to-surface and the surface-to-borehole methods. When the surface-to-surface EM method is employed, the EM is found to be less sensitive, implying low detectability. Especially for the short term of production, the low detectability is attributed to the similarity of electrical resistivity between the dissociated gas (CH4) and hydrate as well as the specific dissociation pattern within the intercalated composites of the field. On the other hand, when the surface-to-borehole EM method is employed, its sensitivity to capture the produced gas flow is improved, confirming its detectability in monitoring gas flow. Hence, the EM geophysics simulation integrated with coupled flow and geomechanics can be a potential tool for monitoring gas hydrate deposits.

depressurization↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Thermodynamic Investigation of Ni on Thin-Film Titanates (ATiO3)

Thin, ~1-nm films of CaTiO3, SrTiO3, and BaTiO3 were deposited onto MgAl2O4 by Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) and then studied as catalyst supports for ~5 wt % of Ni that was added to the perovskite thin films by Atomic Layer Deposition. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy demonstrated that both the Ni and the perovskites uniformly covered the surface of the support following oxidation at 1073 K, even after redox cycling, but large Ni particles formed following a reduction at 1073 K. When compared to Ni/MgAl2O4, the perovskite-containing catalysts required significantly higher temperatures for Ni reduction. Equilibrium constants for Ni oxidation, as determined from Coulometric Titration, indicated that the oxidation of Ni shifted to lower PO2 on the perovskite-containing materials. Based on Ni equilibrium constants, Ni interactions are strongest with CaTiO3, followed by SrTiO3 and BaTiO3. The shift in the equilibrium constant was shown to cause reversible deactivation of the Ni/CaTiO3/MgAl2O4 catalyst for CO2 reforming of CH4 at high CO2 pressures, due to the oxidation of the Ni.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Poly(ionic liquid)s with Dicationic Pendants as Gas Separation Membranes

Poly(norbornene)s and poly(ionic liquid)s are two different classes of attractive materials, which are known for their structural tunability and thermal stabilities, and have been extensively studied as gas separation membranes. The incorporation of ionic liquids (ILs) into the poly(norbornene) through post-polymerization has resulted in unique materials with synergistic properties. However, direct polymerization of norbornene-containing IL monomers as gas separation membranes are limited. To this end, a series of norbornene-containing imidazolium-based mono- and di-cationic ILs (NBM-mIm and NBM-DILs) with different connectivity and spacer lengths were synthesized and characterized spectroscopically. Subsequently, the poly(NBM-mIm) with bistriflimide [Tf2N−] and poly([NBM-DILs][Tf2N]2) comprising homo-, random-, and block- (co)polymers were synthesized via ring-opening metathesis polymerization using the air-stable Grubbs second-generation catalyst. Block copolymers (BCPs), specifically, [NBM-mIM][Tf2N] and [NBM-ImCnmIm] [Tf2N]2 (n = 4 and 6) were synthesized at two different compositions, which generated high molecular weight polymers with decent solubility relative to homo- and random (co)polymers of [NBM-DILs] [Tf2N]2. The prepared BCPs were efficiently analyzed by a host of analytical tools, including 1H-NMR, GPC, and WAXD. The successfully BCPs were cast into thin membranes ranging from 47 to 125 μm and their gas (CO2, N2, CH4, and H2) permeations were measured at 20 °C using a time-lag apparatus. These membranes displayed modest CO2 permeability in a non-linear fashion with respect to composition and a reverse trend in CO2/N2 permselectivity was observed, as a usual trade-off behavior between permeability and permselectivity.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

The Anaerobic Fungi: Challenges and Opportunities for Industrial Lignocellulosic Biofuel Production

Lignocellulose is a promising feedstock for biofuel production as a renewable, carbohydrate-rich and globally abundant source of biomass. However, challenges faced include environmental and/or financial costs associated with typical lignocellulose pretreatments needed to overcome the natural recalcitrance of the material before conversion to biofuel. Anaerobic fungi are a group of underexplored microorganisms belonging to the early diverging phylum Neocallimastigomycota and are native to the intricately evolved digestive system of mammalian herbivores. Anaerobic fungi have promising potential for application in biofuel production processes due to the combination of their highly effective ability to hydrolyse lignocellulose and capability to convert this substrate to H2 and ethanol. Furthermore, they can produce volatile fatty acid precursors for subsequent biological conversion to H2 or CH4 by other microorganisms. The complex biological characteristics of their natural habitat are described, and these features are contextualised towards the development of suitable industrial systems for in vitro growth. Moreover, progress towards achieving that goal is reviewed in terms of process and genetic engineering. In addition, emerging opportunities are presented for the use of anaerobic fungi for lignocellulose pretreatment; dark fermentation; bioethanol production; and the potential for integration with methanogenesis, microbial electrolysis cells and photofermentation.

pretreatment↗
DOE OSTI2023

Understanding of Active Sites and Interconversion of Pd and PdO during CH 4 Oxidation

Pd-based catalysts are widely used in the oxidation of CH 4 and have a significant impact on global warming. However, understanding their active sites remains controversial, because interconversion between Pd and PdO occurs consecutively during the reaction. Understanding the intrinsic active sites under reaction conditions is critical for developing highly active and selective catalysts. In this study, we demonstrated that partially oxidized palladium (PdO x ) on the surface plays an important role for CH 4 oxidation. Regardless of whether the initial state of Pd corresponds to oxides or metallic clusters, the topmost surface is PdO x , which is formed during CH4 oxidation. A quantitative analysis using CO titration, diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier-transform spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that a surface PdO layer was formed on top of the metallic Pd clusters during the CH 4 oxidation reaction. Furthermore, the time-on-stream test of CH 4 oxidation revealed that the presence of the PdO layer on top of the metallic Pd clusters improves the catalytic activity. Our periodic density functional theory (DFT) calculations with a PdO x slab and nanoparticle models aided the elucidation of the structure of the experimental PdO particles, as well as the experimental C-O bands. The DFT results also revealed the formation of a PdO layer on the metallic Pd clusters. This study helps achieve a fundamental understanding of the active sites of Pd and PdO for CH 4 oxidation and provides insights into the development of active and durable Pd-based catalysts through molecular-level design.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of Fe on Co-Based SiO2Al2O3 Mixed Support Catalyst for Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis in 3D-Printed SS Microchannel Microreactor

This research explores the effect of a composite support of SiO2 and Al2O3 with Fe and Co incorporated as catalysts for Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS) using a 3D-printed stainless steel (SS) microchannel microreactor. Two mesoporous catalysts, FeCo/SiO2Al2O3 and Co/SiO2Al2O3, were synthesized via a one-pot (OP) method and extensively characterized using N2 physisorption, XRD, SEM, TEM, H2-TPR, TGA-DSC, FTIR, and XPS. H2-TPR results revealed that the synthesis method significantly affected the reducibility of metal oxides, thereby influencing the formation of active FTS sites. SEM-EDS and TEM further revealed a well-defined hexagonal matrix with a porous surface morphology and uniform metal ion distribution. FTS reactions, carried out in the 200–350 °C temperature range at 20 bar with a H2/CO molar ratio of 2:1, exhibited the highest activity for FeCo/SiO2Al2O3, with up to 80% CO conversion. Long-term stability was evaluated by monitoring the catalyst performance for 30 h on stream at 320 °C under identical reaction conditions. The catalyst was initially active for the methanation reaction for up to 15 h, after which the selectivity for CH4 declined. Correspondingly, the C4+ selectivity increased after 15 h of time-on-stream, indicating a shift in the product distribution toward longer-chain hydrocarbons. This trend suggests that the catalyst undergoes gradual activation or restructuring under reaction conditions, which enhances chain growth over time. The increase in C4+ products may be attributed to the stabilization of the active sites and suppression of methane or light hydrocarbon formation.

Biochemistry & Molecular Biology↗
DOE OSTI2022

Combinatorial Cu-Ni Alloy Thin-Film Catalysts for Layer Number Control in Chemical Vapor-Deposited Graphene

We synthesized a combinatorial library of CuxNi1−x alloy thin films via co-sputtering from Cu and Ni targets to catalyze graphene chemical vapor deposition. The alloy morphology, composition, and microstructure were characterized via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. Subsequently, the CuxNi1−x alloy thin films were used to grow graphene in a CH4-Ar-H2 ambient at atmospheric pressure. The underlying rationale is to adjust the CuxNi1−x composition to control the graphene. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis revealed that a continuous gradient of CuxNi1−x (25 at. % < x < 83 at.%) was initially achieved across the 100 mm diameter substrate (~0.9%/mm composition gradient). The XRD spectra confirmed a solid solution was realized and the face-centered cubic lattice parameter varied from ~3.52 to 3.58 A˙, consistent with the measured composition gradient, assuming Vegard’s law. Optical microscopy and Raman analysis of the graphene layers suggest single layer growth occurs with x > 69 at.%, bilayer growth dominates from 48 at.% < x < 69 at.%, and multilayer (≥3) growth occurs for x < 48 at.%, where x is the Cu concentration. Finally, a large area of bi-layer graphene was grown via a CuxNi1−x catalyst with optimized catalyst composition and growth temperature.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-Speed and Hysteresis-Free Near-Infrared Optical Hydrogen Sensor Based on Ti/Pd Bilayer Thin Films

Palladium (Pd) and titanium (Ti) exhibit opposite dielectric responses upon hydrogenation, with stronger effects observed in the near-infrared (NIR) region. Leveraging this contrast, we investigated Ti/Pd bilayer thin films as a platform for NIR hydrogen sensing—particularly at telecommunication-relevant wavelengths, where such devices have remained largely unexplored. Ti/Pd bilayers coated with Teflon AF (TAF) and fabricated via sequential electron-beam and thermal evaporation were characterized using optical transmission measurements under repeated hydrogenation cycles. The Ti (5 nm)/Pd (x = 2.5 nm)/TAF (30 nm) architecture showed a 2.7-fold enhancement in the hydrogen-induced optical contrast at 1550 nm compared to Pd/TAF reference films, attributed to the hydrogen ion exchange between the Ti and Pd layers. The optimized structure, with a Pd thickness of x = 1.9 nm, exhibited hysteresis-free sensing behavior, a rapid response time (t90 < 0.35 s at 4% H2), and a detection limit below 10 ppm. It also demonstrated excellent selectivity with negligible cross-sensitivity to CO2, CH4, and CO, as well as high durability, showing less than 6% signal degradation over 135 hydrogenation cycles. These findings establish a scalable, room-temperature NIR hydrogen sensing platform with strong potential for deployment in automotive, environmental, and industrial applications.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2021

Design and Gas Separation Performance of Imidazolium Poly(ILs) Containing Multivalent Imidazolium Fillers and Crosslinking Agents

This work introduces a series of vinyl-imidazolium-based polyelectrolyte composites, which were structurally modified via impregnation with multivalent imidazolium-benzene ionic liquids (ILs) or crosslinked with novel cationic crosslinkers which possess internal imidazolium cations and vinylimidazolium cations at the periphery. A set of eight [C4vim][Tf2N]-based membranes were prepared via UV-initiated free radical polymerization, including four composites containing di-, tri-, tetra-, and hexa-imidazolium benzene ILs and four crosslinked derivatives which utilized tri- and tetra- vinylimidazolium benzene crosslinking agents. Structural and functional characterizations were performed, and pure gas permeation data were collected to better understand the effects of “free” ILs dispersed in the polymeric matrix versus integrated ionic crosslinks on the transport behaviors of these thin films. These imidazolium PIL:IL composites exhibited moderately high CO2 permeabilities (~20–40 Barrer), a 4–7× increase relative to corresponding neat PIL, with excellent selectivities against N2 or CH4. The addition of imidazolium-benzene fillers with increased imidazolium content were shown to correspondingly enhance CO2 solubility (di- < tri- < tetra- < hexa-), with the [C4vim][Tf2N]: [Hexa(Im+)Benz ][Tf2N] composite showing the highest CO2 permeability (PCO2 = 38.4 Barrer), while maintaining modest selectivities (αCO2/CH4 = 20.2, αCO2/N2 = 23.6). Additionally, these metrics were similarly improved with the integration of more ionic content bonded to the polymeric matrix; increased PCO2 with increased wt% of the tri- and tetra-vinylimidazolium benzene crosslinking agent was observed. This study demonstrates the intriguing interactions and effects of ionic additives or crosslinkers within a PIL matrix, revealing the potential for the tuning of the properties and transport behaviors of ionic polymers using ionic liquid-inspired small molecules.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗