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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 973 records · Page 54
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2014

Unraveling the Voltage-Fade Mechanism in High-Energy-Density Lithium-Ion Batteries: Origin of the Tetrahedral Cations for Spinel Conversion

Discovery of high-voltage layered lithium-and manganese-rich (LMR) composite oxide electrode has dramatically enhanced the energy density of current Li-ion energy storage systems. However, practical usage of these materials is currently not viable because of their inability to maintain a consistent voltage profile (voltage fading) during subsequent charge-discharge cycles. This report rationalizes the cause of this voltage fade by providing the evidence of layer to spinel-like (LSL) structural evolution pathways in the host Li 1.2 Mn 0.55 Ni 0.15 Co 0.1 O 2 LMR composite oxide. By employing neutron powder diffraction, and temperature dependent magnetic susceptibility, we show that LSL structural rearrangement in LMR oxide occurs through a tetrahedral cation intermediate via: i) diffusion of lithium atoms from octahedral to tetrahedral sites of the lithium layer [(Li Li oct →Li Li tet] which is followed by the dispersal of the lithium ions from the adjacent octahedral site of the metal layer to the tetrahedral sites of lithium layer [Li TM oct → Li Li tet]; and ii) migration of Mn from the octahedral sites of the transition metal layer to the permanent octahedral site of lithium layer via tetrahedral site of lithium layer [Mn TM oct Mn Li tet Mn Li oct)]. The findings opens the door to the potential routes to mitigate this atomic restructuring in the high-voltage LMR composite oxide cathodes by manipulating the composition/structure for practical use in high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2012

Organic oxalate as leachant and precipitant for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries

Graphical abstract: Display Omitted Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Vacuum pyrolysis as a pretreatment was used to separate cathode material from aluminum foils. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Cobalt and lithium can be leached using oxalate while cobalt can be directly precipitated as cobalt oxalate. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Cobalt and lithium can be separated efficiently from each other only in the oxalate leaching process. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer High reaction efficiency of LiCoO{sub 2} was obtained with oxalate. - Abstract: Spent lithium-ion batteries containing lots of strategic resources such as cobalt and lithium are considered as an attractive secondary resource. In this work, an environmentally compatible process based on vacuum pyrolysis, oxalate leaching and precipitation is applied to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries. Oxalate is introduced as leaching reagent meanwhile as precipitant which leaches and precipitates cobalt from LiCoO{sub 2} and CoO directly as CoC{sub 2}O{sub 4}{center_dot}2H{sub 2}O with 1.0 M oxalate solution at 80 Degree-Sign C and solid/liquid ratio of 50 g L{sup -1} for 120 min. The reaction efficiency of more than 98% of LiCoO{sub 2} can be achieved and cobalt and lithium can also be separated efficiently during the hydrometallurgical process. The combined process is simple and adequate for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2016

Helium-3 Production via Lithium-6 Activation in an Accelerator-Driven Reactor

In this paper, the possibility of using an accelerator-driven subcritical reactor to produce helium-3 is explored. Current supply of helium-3 in the United States is running low. Helium-3 has many applications in neutron detection, high-energy physics, and national security, and has a growing demand in the scientific community for its properties. The main source of helium-3 in the United States is from dismantling nuclear arms, where tritium is allowed to decay into helium-3. There are no current, significant future plans for increasing helium-3 production. However, the projected demand of this isotope is expected to increase dramatically, with greater research into aneutronic fusion, and allotments of helium for the Spallation Neutron Source, and ITER expected in years to come. Tritium, with a half-life of 12.3 years, will take time to decay to helium-3, which means production needs to start now to counter the future deficit. This helium-3 production system sets out to be an economical, and safe solution for this future deficit. A zirconium-lithium mixture is utilized as a target for breeding helium-3. Specifically, the target rods will consist of lithium aluminate pellets with diameters ranging from 100 to 500 microns, dispersed within a zirconium matrix. Lithium targets in pellet form were chosen over a solid rod, or annulus, in order to reduce self-shielding effects within the lithium, and to further facilitate tritium loading and containment within the zirconium. Additionally, a stainless steel 316 cladding surrounds the target rods, to further reduce outgassing of helium. The core is made up of 6480 fuel pins, enriched to 4.75% wt% U-235/U, and 3660 lithium pins in mixed assemblies arranged in hexagonal lattices, with the lithium enriched to 75% lithium-6, and a total lithium loading of approximately 70 kg. An accelerator is used as a neutron source, firing 800 MeV protons at a liquid lead target loop. Neutronics analysis and burnup calculation were performed with the aid of MCNP6. (authors)

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Selectively extracting lithium from single and mixed cathode materials

With the burgeoning reliance on lithium-ion batteries for sustainable energy solutions and electric transportation, the environmental and resource management associated with battery disposal are increasingly critical. Addressing these challenges necessitates innovative recycling techniques that recover valuable battery components, particularly lithium. This research introduces a universal, eco-friendly approach tailored for the efficient selective extraction of lithium from both single and mixed cathode materials, achieving impressive selective leaching efficiencies of lithium (99.51 % for LFP, 90 % for NMC, and 97.24 % for mixed cathode). Surprisingly, leaching efficiency of lithium from NMC can be significantly improved by introducing LFP since LFP can remove the dense transition-metal salts on the surface of NMC. The extracted lithium is recovered as lithium carbonate with battery-grade purity. This study also highlights the reuse of formic acid and the adoption of oxygen as an oxidizing agent to prevent wastewater production. Therefore, this method provides a robust foundation for sustainable lithium battery recycling.

economically and environmentally feasible↗
DOE OSTI2021

Simulation of lithium transport using the BOUT++ framework

A numerical model that calculates the collisional interactions between the lithium atoms from a lithium pellet and the background plasmas has been upgraded. The ion density ($N_t$), electron temperature ($T_e$), ion temperature ($T_i$) and parallel ion velocity ($V_{∥, i}$) are used to characterize the background plasmas. The lithium atom density ($N^{a}_{Li}$) and parallel velocity ($V_{∥,a}$) of lithium atoms evolve with time. For each lithium ion, the density ($N_{Li^{n+}}$), temperature ($T_{Li^{n+}}$) and parallel velocity ($V_{∥, Li^{n+}}$) are self-consistently calculated. A C-mod lower single null equilibrium is used to generate the grid for the BOUT++ simulation. The lithium atoms can be fully ionized to $Li^{3+}$ in ~2 μs. The rapid radial and poloidal expansion of the lithium ions are found in the simulation. After the collision interaction process, the electron temperature rapidly decreases at the pellet location; then, it rapidly poloidally expands, and the temperature at the pellet location starts to recover. The electron pressure increases at the pellet location despite the decrease in electron temperature because of the extra electrons from the lithium ionization. The ion pressure profile decreases in the pellet location due to the decrease in ion temperature.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2018

A new developed in-between shots lithium evaporation coating system for improving plasma performance in EAST

A new in-between shots evaporative lithium coating system has been successfully developed and implemented on the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) for the 2017 campaign. This paper describes a novel technique for the introduction of lithium into the EAST vessel allowing evaporative coatings to be applied between discharges without requiring a significant amount of time to insert and retract the lithium source. This newly designed system utilizes a rotating axis driven by a vacuum dynamic sealing feedthough under remote control to open and close a shutter. A compression bellows, which drives the delivery tube, guarantees accurate position of the oven thus avoiding possible direct contact with the plasma. This allows the new evaporation system to be operated in two distinct modes. One mode is operated in-between shots to refresh pre-coated lithium film, the other is a real-time lithium vapor injection during plasma operations to provide active wall conditioning during long pulse plasma discharges. In this paper, operation of this new lithium deposition system in the in-between shots replenishment mode is described. Initial experiments show that this system worked well during the interval of discharges in EAST, and the in-between shots lithium coating effectively reduced the wall recycling and impurity concentrations. Furthermore, the application of fresh lithium coating lead to sustain the plasma stored energy and confinement, as well as a reduction of impurity radiation.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

A distillation column for hydrogen isotope removal from liquid lithium

Recovery of tritium from plasma-facing components in fusion devices will be vital to future full-scale operation. Liquid, low-Z materials have demonstrated many inherent advantages over solid first wall materials. To this end, a thermal treatment method in the form of a distillation column for extraction of hydrogen isotopes from liquid lithium has been designed, developed, and constructed at the Center for Plasma-Material Interactions at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Use of induction heating and lithium condensation stages are the two qualities that set this design apart from other thermal treatment systems. Induction heating capabilities were modeled using the COMSOL Multiphysics software, which were validated when commissioning the physical heater module. Proof-of-concept tests were performed in the prototype column, which were undertaken as batch processes to investigate the efficacy with which the column could remove hydrogen gas from lithium-rich and lithium hydride-rich samples. All of the tests reported used lithium hydride as a surrogate for lithium deuteride and lithium tritide. The design process and results from the initial tests will be discussed, along with the envisioned placement of this treatment scheme in a fully-functional lithium loop.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2012

Synthesis, crystal structure, and electrode characteristics of LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH) cathode for lithium batteries

The electrochemical properties of lithium manganese hydroxyphosphate, LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH), with the tavorite structure have been investigated to assess its suitability as a cathode material for lithium batteries. Stoichiometric LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH) was synthesized by an ion-exchange reaction with MnPO{sub 4}{center_dot}H{sub 2}O and LiNO{sub 3}. Lithium (de)intercalation reaction was observed for the first time in the trivalent LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH), and it exhibited a reversible capacity of 110 mA h g{sup -1} with an average cell voltage of 3.4 V (vs. Li) after an irreversible phase change during the first charge process. The crystal structure has been refined at room temperature by neutron and synchrotron X-ray diffraction data using Rietveld method with a space group of P-1. The hydroxy group at a bottleneck may reduce the attraction force between lithium and the bottleneck oxygen ions that thus increase the ion mobility along the lithium diffusion tunnel. - Graphical abstract: Tavorite-type material LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH) shows lithium intercalation at an average voltage of 3.4 V (vs. Li) after a phase transition during the first charge-discharge. Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Tavorite-type LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH) nanoparticles as a cathode material for lithium battery. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Synchrotron XRD and neutron diffraction refinement of LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH). Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Lithium intercalation reaction occurs in LiMnPO{sub 4}(OH) during charge-discharge. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer A phase transition in the first charge, followed by a reversible reaction.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Uniform lithiophilic layers in 3D current collectors enable ultrastable solid electrolyte interphase for high-performance lithium metal batteries

Uniform lithium plating/stripping during charging/discharging in 3D lithiophilic current collectors (3DLCC) is essential to suppress growth of lithium dendrites and to mitigate infinite volume variations of lithium metal for long-lived lithium metal batteries. Additionally, this study reveals the decisive role played by uniformity of the lithiophilic layer of the 3DLCC in achieving uniform lithium plating/stripping. Herein, a series of metal oxide-based 3DLCCs are successfully fabricated with a simple and an ultrafast solution combustion method, from which formation of a uniform and stable lithium dendrite-free solid electrolyte interphase via a uniform lithiophilic layer is demonstrated. Taking Co 3 O 4 as the lithiophilic material deposited on a nickel foam as the 3DLCC (Co@NF) for a proof of concept, the loading amount of Co 3 O 4 , closely correlated with the uniformity of the Co 3 O 4 layer, is modulated to optimize its lithium ion hosting performances. With a uniform Co 3 O 4 layer grown in the 3DLCC, an ultralow nucleation overpotential of 33.4 mV is achieved in half-cell tests at 1 mA cm -2 and 1 mAh cm -2 , and a high Coulombic efficiency of 97.1% is maintained after 210 cycles under a severe cycling condition of 2 mA cm -2 and 1 mAh cm -2 . A small polarization voltage of 13 mV together with an ultralong cycle life of 2400 h at 0.5 mA cm -2 and 1 mAh cm -2 in symmetric Li cells is achieved. Moreover, the composite Li anode delivers sensational rate capability and cyclability in full-cells. This work not only provides new and valuable insights into the interphasial chemistry of solid electrolyte interphase layers, but also sheds light on the development of ultrastable lithium metal batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Tailoring copper current collector roughness and crystallographic orientation to improve lithium plating

Secondary lithium metal batteries are of great interest due to a high theoretical energy density, but rechargeability is limited by the formation of lithium dendrites that lead to internal short circuits and catastrophic cell failure. Mitigating dendrites through uniform current distribution at the current collector is a promising solution to enabling long cycle life of lithium metal electrodes. Here, the impact of copper crystal orientation and roughness on electrochemically deposited lithium morphology is studied. For 50 cycles, the capacity retention from greatest to least followed polycrystalline copper 95 ± 1 % (MC-PC) ≥ 94.55 ± 0.01 % Cu (110) > 93.0 ± 0.4 % Cu(111) > 75.8 ± 0.1 % Cu(100). Cu(100) performed the worst in all cases with shorts occurring frequently before reaching 50 cycles. Cryo-scanning electron microscopy images showed that after 50 cycles, MC-PC Cu had the best lithium morphology, but at early cycles, Cu(111) formed the densest lithium layer. MC-PC Cu had the most uniform lithium nucleation which may have been caused by increased roughness relative to the single crystal samples. When polycrystalline Cu (F-PC) roughness was systematically controlled, the cumulative Coulombic efficiency increased from about 0.3–0.5 with increasing roughness from an Ra of about 10–40 nm. Lastly, plating rates were studied. Slower rates of 0.25 mA/cm 2 exhibited denser lithium morphology in all cases as compared to 0.5 and 1.0 mA/cm 2 , but the relative porosity of Li deposited on the different current collectors depended on the rate applied.

Copper↗
DOE OSTI2016

The low temperature oxidation of lithium thin films on HOPG by O 2 and H 2 O

Lithiated graphite and lithium thin films have been used in fusion devices. In this environment, lithiated graphite will undergo oxidation by background gases. In order to gain insight into this oxidation process, thin (< 15 monolayer (ML)) lithium films on highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) were exposed in this paper to O 2(g) and H 2 O (g) in an ultra-high vacuum chamber. High resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS) was used to identify the surface species formed during O 2(g) and H 2 O (g) exposure. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) was used to obtain the relative oxidation rates during O 2(g) and H 2 O (g) exposure. AES showed that as the lithium film thickness decreased from 15 to 5 to 1 ML, the oxidation rate decreased for both O 2(g) and H 2 O (g) . HREELS showed that a 15 ML lithium film was fully oxidized after 9.7 L (L) of O 2(g) exposure and Li 2 O was formed. HREELS also showed that during initial exposure (< 0.5 L) H 2 O (g) , lithium hydride and lithium hydroxide were formed on the surface of a 15 ML lithium film. Finally, after 0.5 L of H 2 O (g) exposure, the H 2 O (g) began to physisorb, and after 15 L of H 2 O (g) exposure, the 15 ML lithium film was not fully oxidized.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

New directions and principles for solvent extraction for recovery of lithium from aqueous brines and mineral leachates: A brief review

Increasing demand for lithium for manufacturing of batteries is fueling the unprecedented search for improved recovery and alternative sources. Wider source distribution, lower energy consumption, and greater sustainability make extraction of lithium from brines, both natural and process-derived, an attractive alternative to mineral ores. Solvent extraction, used industrially for production of metals, salts, and pharmaceuticals, has been investigated as a methodology for lithium recovery for several decades. However, industrial application of solvent extraction for lithium recovery has so far been limited. In contrast, direct lithium extraction using adsorbents based on inorganic minerals has rapidly advanced from research to commercialization. A comparison of solvent extraction processes to adsorption highlights these issues and explains the preference for adsorbents. Although the application of solvent extraction has been criticized for use of large amounts of acid, alkali, and organic solvents, steady progress has been made to improve its potential for industrial lithium production, spurred on generally by the advantages of solvent extraction in selectivity and throughput. Previously developed beta-diketone, organophosphate, and crown ether ligands are being adapted and improved. Their novel use with ionic liquids, deep eutectic solvents, and membrane technologies promises to expand capabilities for extraction of lithium from dilute aqueous sources while improving sustainability. Possibilities for further discovery and innovation abound. In this review, we provide a unique perspective from the field of solvent extraction starting with fundamentals such as ion-transfer theory and apply them to understanding lithium selectivity and extraction behavior. In conclusion, the results are cast in the light of the practical realities of developing economical solvent extraction processes.

Brine↗
DOE OSTI2019

Chemistry of Electrolyte Reduction on Lithium Silicide

Silicon anodes are promising for next-generation lithium-ion batteries due to high theoretical capacity. However, their performance and lifetime are currently limited by continuous electrolyte reduction and solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation. Thus, SEI studies are important but often complicated due to the rough morphology of samples, buried interfaces, and the presence of binders. Here, we demonstrate the chemical origin of SEI formation by electrolyte reduction on lithium silicide thin films, synthesized by diffusion of pure evaporated lithium into smooth sputtered silicon. These model samples allowed for accurate estimation of irreversible capacity loss due to electrolyte reduction and for precise characterization of the resulting SEI by vibrational and photoelectron spectroscopies. Spectroscopic characterizations showed clear evidence that lithium silicide reduced electrolyte directly upon contact. Negligible first-cycle irreversible capacity loss was observed for the lithium silicide compared to silicon, indicating that the decomposition product of electrolyte on lithium silicide is able to stop further electrolyte reduction to a large extent. Fluoro-ethylene carbonate was shown to significantly affect the chemistry of electrolyte reduction on lithium silicide and subsequent cycling performance. The results of this basic study reveal the chemistry occurring at the interface of the lithium silicide and electrolyte and help in understanding the limited calendar lifetime of Li-ion batteries with Si anodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Anionic Effects on Concentrated Aqueous Lithium Ion Dynamics

In this article, the structural dynamics, chemical reactivity, anisotropy, diffusivity, viscosity, and density were measured for concentrated lithium salt solutions, including lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium bromide (LiBr), lithium nitrite (LiNO 2 ), and lithium nitrate (LiNO 3 ), with methyl thiocyanate as an infrared vibrational probe molecule, using two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2D IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and viscometry. 2D IR, NMR, and viscosity results show that LiNO 2 exhibits longer correlation times, lower diffusivity, and nearly four times greater viscosity when compared to the other lithium salt solutions of the same concentration, suggesting that nitrite anions may strongly facilitate structure formation via strengthening water-ion interactions, directly impacting bulk solution properties at sufficiently high concentrations. Additionally, the LiNO 2 and LiNO 3 solutions show significantly reduced chemical reactivity with respect to lithium cations coordinating with the methyl thiocyanate when compared to the lithium halide salts.

2D IR↗
DOE OSTI2019

Impact of Salt Concentration on Nonuniform Lithium Electrodeposition through Rigid Block Copolymer Electrolytes

There is a growing demand for higher energy density lithium batteries. One approach for addressing this demand is enabling lithium metal anodes. However, nucleation and growth of electronically conductive protrusions, which cause short circuits, prevent the use of this technology with liquid electrolytes. The use of rigid solid electrolytes such as polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene oxide) electrolytes is one solution. An additional requirement for practical cells is needed to use electrolytes with high salt concentration to maximize the flux of lithium ions in the cell. The first systematic study of the effect of salt concentration on the morphology of electrodeposited lithium through a rigid block copolymer electrolyte is presented. The nature, areal density, and morphologies of defective lithium deposits created during galvanostatic cycling of lithium-lithium symmetric cells were determined using hard X-ray microtomography. Cycle life decreases rapidly with increasing salt concentration. X-ray microtomography reveals the presence of multiglobular protrusions, which are nucleated at impurity particles at low salt concentrations; here, the areal density of defective lithium deposits was independent of salt concentration. Finally, at the highest salt concentration, this density increases abruptly by a factor of about 10, and defects were also nucleated at locations where no impurities were visible.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Comparing the Purity of Rolled versus Evaporated Lithium Metal Films Using X-ray Microtomography

Here, we present a comparison of lithium metal films produced via rolling and thermal evaporation using synchrotron hard X-ray microtomography. In past studies of rolled lithium metal foils, a large number of C, O, and N impurities were found and identified as the key cause for failure in lithium metal cells. In this comparison, the X-ray tomography data show that the evaporated lithium metal films have an average impurity concentration of 19 particles/mm3 in comparison to 1350 particles/mm3 in the rolled lithium metal. An analysis of the inner substrate/lithium interface and outer lithium surface of the thermally evaporated film shows a much greater concentration of impurities at these interfaces, further emphasizing the importance of interface engineering in producing high-quality lithium metal batteries. Furthermore, we show that, if surface contamination can be avoided, it is possible to obtain lithium films with no impurities detectable by synchrotron hard X-ray tomography.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Defect-Mediated Diffusion Pathways in Spodumene Accelerate Lithium Transport

Lithium extraction from naturally occurring α-spodumene is hindered by poor lithium diffusivity, necessitating high-temperature phase transformation to a low-density β polymorph. Although β spodumene exhibits up to 5 orders of magnitude higher lithium-ion diffusivity, both phases have diffusion activation energies between 0.8 and 1 eV, indicating that polymorph density is not the controlling factor over diffusivity. We show that aluminum vacancies facilitate lithium-ion diffusion in α-spodumene by reducing the migration barrier from 2.4 to 0.9 eV. Bond valence site energy and nudged elastic band calculations show a new lithium local minimum site which promotes a one-dimensional percolation network by reducing the lithium intersite distance from 4.5 Å to 2.9 Å. However, aluminum vacancies are energetically unfavorable to percolate through the whole structure, resulting in very low net lithium diffusivity and highlighting the critical role of nonstoichiometric defects in facilitating lithium transport in rigid aluminosilicate structures.

Chemical structure↗
DOE OSTI2012

Lithium-based surfaces controlling fusion plasma behavior at the plasma-material interface

The plasma-material interface and its impact on the performance of magnetically confined thermonuclear fusion plasmas are considered to be one of the key scientific gaps in the realization of nuclear fusion power. At this interface, high particle and heat flux from the fusion plasma can limit the material's lifetime and reliability and therefore hinder operation of the fusion device. Lithium-based surfaces are now being used in major magnetic confinement fusion devices and have observed profound effects on plasma performance including enhanced confinement, suppression and control of edge localized modes (ELM), lower hydrogen recycling and impurity suppression. The critical spatial scale length of deuterium and helium particle interactions in lithium ranges between 5-100 nm depending on the incident particle energies at the edge and magnetic configuration. Lithium-based surfaces also range from liquid state to solid lithium coatings on a variety of substrates (e.g., graphite, stainless steel, refractory metal W/Mo/etc., or porous metal structures). Temperature-dependent effects from lithium-based surfaces as plasma facing components (PFC) include magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instability issues related to liquid lithium, surface impurity, and deuterium retention issues, and anomalous physical sputtering increase at temperatures above lithium's melting point. The paper discusses the viability of lithium-based surfaces in future burning-plasma environments such as those found in ITER and DEMO-like fusion reactor devices.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗