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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Feasibility and Performance Analysis of Magnetohydrodynamics Control for Aerocapture at Neptune

NASA’s most recent Decadal Survey posed a mission to one of the Ice Giants as the top priority for flagship missions in the organization’s future. However, current technologies limit the amount of scientific payload available for future Uranian and Neptunian missions due to the need for fuel for orbit insertion maneuvers. Thus, to maximize the scientific potential of future missions, atmospheric aerocapture has been heavily researched. While atmospheric aerocapture simulations have proven enabling for capturing around Neptune, its deep atmospheric pass requires an aeroshell with thermal protection systems(TPS). Magnetohydrodynamically-controlled aerocapture serves as a potential solution to both fully-propulsive orbit insertion and atmospheric aerocapture. Through NASA Langley’s high-fidelity flight dynamics simulation, the Program to Optimize Simulated Trajectories II, both the atmospheric and magnetohydrodynamic aerocapture methods were simulated and compared for identical missions to Neptune. After applying a guidance algorithm for both methods, the results showed that magnetohydrodynamics has not only the control authority to successfully capture around Neptune, but also the unique advantage of a shallower atmospheric pass which decreases the maximum heat load and the required TPS mass.

Danny Nguyen↗
NASA NTRS2011

Implementation of Motion Simulation Software and Visual-Auditory Electronics for Use in a Low Gravity Robotic Testbed

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is developing the All-Terrain Hex-Limbed Extra-Terrestrial Explorer (ATHLETE) to assist in manned space missions. One of the proposed targets for this robotic vehicle is a near-Earth asteroid (NEA), which typically exhibit a surface gravity of only a few micro-g. In order to properly test ATHLETE in such an environment, the development team has constructed an inverted Stewart platform testbed that acts as a robotic motion simulator. This project focused on creating physical simulation software that is able to predict how ATHLETE will function on and around a NEA. The corresponding platform configurations are calculated and then passed to the testbed to control ATHLETE's motion. In addition, imitation attitude, imitation attitude control thrusters were designed and fabricated for use on ATHLETE. These utilize a combination of high power LEDs and audio amplifiers to provide visual and auditory cues that correspond to the physics simulation.

gravity↗
NASA NTRS2017

High-Fidelity Multi-Rotor Unmanned Aircraft System Simulation Development for Trajectory Prediction Under Off-Nominal Flight Dynamics

The NASA Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM) project is conducting research to enable civilian low-altitude airspace and UAS operations. A goal of this project is to develop probabilistic methods to quantify risk during failures and off nominal flight conditions. An important part of this effort is the reliable prediction of feasible trajectories during off-nominal events such as control failure, atmospheric upsets, or navigation anomalies that can cause large deviations from the intended flight path or extreme vehicle upsets beyond the normal flight envelope. Few examples of high-fidelity modeling and prediction of off-nominal behavior for small UAS (sUAS) vehicles exist, and modeling requirements for accurately predicting flight dynamics for out-of-envelope or failure conditions are essentially undefined. In addition, the broad range of sUAS aircraft configurations already being fielded presents a significant modeling challenge, as these vehicles are often very different from one another and are likely to possess dramatically different flight dynamics and resultant trajectories and may require different modeling approaches to capture off-nominal behavior. NASA has undertaken an extensive research effort to define sUAS flight dynamics modeling requirements and develop preliminary high fidelity six degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) simulations capable of more closely predicting off-nominal flight dynamics and trajectories. This research has included a literature review of existing sUAS modeling and simulation work as well as development of experimental testing methods to measure and model key components of propulsion, airframe and control characteristics. The ultimate objective of these efforts is to develop tools to support UTM risk analyses and for the real-time prediction of off-nominal trajectories for use in the UTM Risk Assessment Framework (URAF). This paper focuses on modeling and simulation efforts for a generic quad-rotor configuration typical of many commercial vehicles in use today. An overview of relevant off-nominal multi-rotor behaviors will be presented to define modeling goals and to identify the prediction capability lacking in simplified models of multi-rotor performance. A description of recent NASA wind tunnel testing of multi-rotor propulsion and airframe components will be presented illustrating important experimental and data acquisition methods, and a description of preliminary propulsion and airframe models will be presented. Lastly, examples of predicted off-nominal flight dynamics and trajectories from the simulation will be presented.

Foster, John V.↗
NASA NTRS2002

A Novel Approach for Modeling Chemical Reaction in Generalized Fluid System Simulation Program

The Generalized Fluid System Simulation Program (GFSSP) is a computer code developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center for analyzing steady state and transient flow rates, pressures, temperatures, and concentrations in a complex flow network. The code, which performs system level simulation, can handle compressible and incompressible flows as well as phase change and mixture thermodynamics. Thermodynamic and thermophysical property programs, GASP, WASP and GASPAK provide the necessary data for fluids such as helium, methane, neon, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, fluorine, hydrogen, water, a hydrogen, isobutane, butane, deuterium, ethane, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, krypton, propane, xenon, several refrigerants, nitrogen trifluoride and ammonia. The program which was developed out of need for an easy to use system level simulation tool for complex flow networks, has been used for the following purposes to name a few: Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) High Pressure Oxidizer Turbopump Secondary Flow Circuits, Axial Thrust Balance of the Fastrac Engine Turbopump, Pressurized Propellant Feed System for the Propulsion Test Article at Stennis Space Center, X-34 Main Propulsion System, X-33 Reaction Control System and Thermal Protection System, and International Space Station Environmental Control and Life Support System design. There has been an increasing demand for implementing a combustion simulation capability into GFSSP in order to increase its system level simulation capability of a liquid rocket propulsion system starting from the propellant tanks up to the thruster nozzle for spacecraft as well as launch vehicles. The present work was undertaken for addressing this need. The chemical equilibrium equations derived from the second law of thermodynamics and the energy conservation equation derived from the first law of thermodynamics are solved simultaneously by a Newton-Raphson method. The numerical scheme was implemented as a User Subroutine in GFSSP.

Sozen, Mehmet↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Mass Economy Evaluation for Integrated ECLSS and Propulsion Architecture

As missions in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) lengthen and extend to deep space, minimizing resupply needs becomes vital for sustaining crewed operations. Traditional life support systems depend on consumables resupplied from Earth, a method that is increasingly impractical for missions beyond LEO, such as lunar outposts or Mars transit. Long-duration missions require more efficient, autonomous systems that can recycle essential resources, particularly water and oxygen, to minimize the frequency and mass of resupply missions. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is essential to such missions, with the International Space Station (ISS) serving as a testbed for advanced water recovery and partial oxygen recycling via physico-chemical methods. Yet, ECLSS and propulsion subsystems generally operate independently, despite overlapping requirements and potential areas for synergy. For instance, ECLSS byproducts, water, CO₂, and hydrogen, could be repurposed for propulsion, potentially reducing dedicated propellant mass and increasing overall system efficiency. One promising approach is to develop shared-resource architectures that integrate ECLSS with propulsion systems. This study examines the potential of such integration through the Sabatier CO₂ reduction process, focusing on water management as a key factor in system mass trade-offs. The Sabatier reaction produces water and methane from metabolic CO₂ and electrolytic hydrogen, partially closing the life support loop and providing methane, which could serve as a propellant. This integration could minimize waste, reduce resupply requirements, and enhance mission mass efficiency. A dynamic modeling framework will be used to simulate resource flows over long missions, capturing interactions between life support and propulsion. By comparing integrated versus separate system configurations, the study aims to quantify mass benefits and penalties, informing future habitat designs and trade studies for missions prioritizing autonomy and mass efficiency.

ECLSS↗
NASA NTRS2026

Mass Economy Evaluation for Integrated ECLSS and Propulsion Architecture

As missions in low Earth orbit (LEO) lengthen and extend to deep space, minimizing resupply needs becomes vital for sustaining crewed operations. Traditional life support systems depend on consumables resupplied from Earth, a method that is increasingly impractical for missions beyond LEO, such as lunar outposts or Mars transit. Long-duration missions require more efficient, autonomous systems that can recycle essential resources, particularly water and oxygen, to minimize the frequency and mass of resupply missions. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is essential to such missions, with the International Space Station (ISS) serving as a testbed for advanced water recovery and partial oxygen recycling via physico-chemical methods. Yet, ECLSS and propulsion subsystems generally operate independently, despite overlapping requirements and potential areas for synergy. For instance, ECLSS byproducts, water, CO 2 , and hydrogen, could be repurposed for propulsion, potentially reducing dedicated propellant mass and increasing overall system efficiency. One promising approach is to develop shared-resource architectures that integrate ECLSS with propulsion systems. This study examines the potential of such integration through the Sabatier CO₂ reduction process, focusing on water management as a key factor in system mass trade-offs. The Sabatier reaction produces water and methane from metabolic CO 2 and electrolytic hydrogen, partially closing the life support loop and providing methane, which could serve as a propellant. This integration could minimize waste, reduce resupply requirements, and enhance mission mass efficiency. A dynamic modeling framework will be used to simulate resource flows over long missions, capturing interactions between life support and propulsion. By comparing integrated versus separate system configurations, the study aims to quantify mass benefits and penalties, informing future habitat designs and trade studies for missions prioritizing autonomy and mass efficiency.

ECLSS↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Control and Scaling Approach for the Emulation of Dynamic Subscale Torque Loads

Research and development of electrified aircraft propulsion powertrains is moving toward the use electro-mechanical systems to emulate the loads a system imparts on another. Replacing a prime mover with a model driving an electro-mechanical system capable of emulating loads that regulate the system to produce a desired response is a lower risk, lower cost alternative to using the traditional prime mover for control system verification. This paper outlines a control and scaling approach for emulating scaled dynamic torque loads using electric machine (EM) hardware for electrified aircraft propulsion research and development purposes. The approach, known as the Sliding Mode Impedance Controller with Scaling (SMICS), drives a mechanically coupled two-EM system that provides a scaled hardware representation of an electrified turbomachinery shaft. One EM reflects inertial dynamics and load of the shaft under steady-state and transient operation while the second EM represents a motor/generator connected to the shaft. This closed loop system applies impedance and sliding mode control schemes to match desired dynamics in real-time along with parameter scaling to effectively scale full scale torque inputs, a full-scale desired inertia, and sub-scale speed feedback. The result is a sub-scale hardware implementation of a coupled EM system that is command-able by a model and control system designed for a full-scale electrified aircraft propulsion powertrain. The paper elaborates on the need for closed loop control and scaling as well as impedance and sliding mode control theory, shows a derivation of the controller and scaling, its implementation, and presents a comparison of theoretical and actual simulation results acquired during hardware-in-the-loop testing of a partial turboelectric propulsion concept at the NASA Electric Aircraft Testbed (NEAT).

Santino J Bianco↗
NASA NTRS2004

Glenn Heat Transfer Simulation and Solver Graphical User Interface: Development and Testing

In the Tui ine Branch of the Turbomachinery and Propulsion Systems Division, researching and developing efficient turbine aerothermodynamics technologies is the main objective. Creating effective turbines for jet engines is a process which, if based purely on physical experimental testing, would be extremely expensive. It is for this reason, and also for the reasons of speed and ease, that the Turbine Branch spends a large amount of effort working with simulations of turbines. Specifically, they focus their work on two main fields: Computational Field Dynamics (CFD), and Experimental data analysis. The experimental field involves comparing experimental results to simulated results, whereas the CFD field involves running these simulations. The simulations are applied to aerodynamics and heat transfer cases, for both steady and unsteady flow conditions. By and large this work is applied to the domain of flow and heat transfer in axial turbines. The main application used to run these heat flow simulations is GlennHT. This program, recently rewritten in FORTRAN 90, allows the user to input a job file which specifies all the necessary parameters needed to simulate flow through a user-defined grid. There are several other executables used as well, ranging in application from converting grid files to and from particular formats, to merging blocks in a connectivity file, to converting connectivity files to a GlennHT compatible format. All of these executables are run from the command line in a terminal; some of them have interactive prompts where the user must specify the files to be manipulated after the program starts, while others take all of their parameters from the command line. With this amount of variation comes a good deal of commands and formats to memorize, which can cause slower and less efficient work, as users may forget how to execute a certain program, or not remember the pathnames of the files they wish to use. Two years ago, steps were made to expedite this process with a graphical user interface (GUI) that combines the functionality of all the executables along with adding some new functionality, such as residuals graphing and boundary conditions creation. Upon my beginning here at Glenn, many parts of the GUI, which was developed in Java, were nonfunctional. There were also issues with cross-platforming, as systems in the branch were transitioning from Silicon Graphics (SGI) machines to Linux machines. My goals this summer are to finish the parts of the GUI that are not yet completed, fix parts that did not work correctly, expand the functionality to include other useful features, such as grid surface highlighting, and make the system compatible with both Linux and SGI. I will also be heavily testing the system and providing sufficient documentation on how to use the GUI, as no such documentation existed previously.

Kardamis, Joseph R.↗
NASA NTRS2023

A Framework for Evaluating Distributed Electric Propulsion on the SUSAN Electrofan Aircraft

This work presents a framework for evaluating models and algorithms for Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP) on the SUSAN Electrofan Aircraft. Throughout the development of the SUSAN aircraft, the performance of various configurations of the aircraft will need to be analyzed. However, the static behavior alone is not sufficient to describe the performance of these configurations. Therefore, simulation with fully integrated subsystem models is required. The proposed framework considers the vehicle aerodynamic, propulsion, and control subsystems. The presented framework automatically generates control laws for any vehicle configuration in response to changes in these subsystems. To compare these different vehicle configurations, various time and frequency domain performance metrics are compared. Three different system modifications are used as cases to evaluate this framework. The first modification integrates the propulsion control system with the flight controller to enable differential thrust without stalling the main engine. This evaluation case is used to validate the framework for aircraft configurations with coupled subsystems. The second modification compares the effect of the vertical tail size on open and closed loop performance. This evaluation case is used to validate the framework for controlling different configurations and tuning towards comparable closed loop performance despite changes to the aircraft's aerodynamic model. The third modification implements two different control allocation schemes. This evaluation case demonstrates the framework's ability to evaluate allocation modifications needed to take advantage of DEP. The first evaluation case is used to show that controller integration enables differential thrust, improving realized wingfan bandwidth by up to 40\% in simulation. The second evaluation case demonstrates that the framework can stabilize the reduced tail size aircraft with closed loop control. The third evaluation case demonstrates that a pseudoinverse control allocation scheme improves lateral velocity settling time by approximately 17~seconds over a symmetric-thrust allocation. These cases show that the framework is useful for evaluating the performance of integrated system designs, enabling analyses of new models and algorithms for the SUSAN distributed electric propulsion vehicle.

Nicholas C Ogden↗
DOE OSTI2023

Detailed mixing measurements from single-hole converging ECN injectors using Rayleigh scattering

Time resolved liquid and vapor fields of dodecane and oxymethylene ethers are measured from Spray A-3 and Spray D using high speed Rayleigh scattering and diffuse back illumination at the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray A condition of 900 K and 22.8 kg/m 3 . Global quantities including mixture fraction, vapor and liquid penetration, as well as spreading angle are measured. The mixture fraction fields and vapor penetration profiles are well predicted by the 1-D Musculus-Kattke model. The mixture fraction field and vapor penetration from Spray A-3 are similar to those measured from Spray A in previous works. Spray D exhibits higher mixture fraction fields and vapor penetration due to its larger nozzle diameter. The quasi-steady mixture fraction fields from these injectors scale well when distance from the injector is normalized by the nozzle diameter. The turbulent dissipation structures were also analyzed based on the orientation, thickness, and magnitude of the mixing layers. Furthermore, the orientation and thickness are similar to other measurements in atmospheric gas jets, while the magnitude is lower. The thickness and magnitude are subject to uncertainties due to limitations in the imaging resolution of the system but still provide an order of magnitude as a useful reference for comparison against computational fluid dynamic simulations.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
NASA NTRS1998

Investigation of Propulsion System Requirements for Spartan Lite

This paper discusses the (chemical or electric) propulsion system requirements necessary to increase the Spartan Lite science mission lifetime to over a year. Spartan Lite is an extremely low-cost (less than 10 M) spacecraft bus being developed at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center to accommodate sounding rocket class (40 W, 45 kg, 35 cm dia by 1 m length) payloads. While Spartan Lite is compatible with expendable launch vehicles, most missions are expected to be tertiary payloads deployed by. the Space Shuttle. To achieve a one year or longer mission life from typical Shuttle orbits, some form of propulsion system is required. Chemical propulsion systems (characterized by high thrust impulsive maneuvers) and electrical propulsion systems (characterized by low-thrust long duration maneuvers and the additional requirement for electrical power) are discussed. The performance of the Spartan Lite attitude control system in the presence of large disturbance torques is evaluated using the Trectops(Tm) dynamic simulator. This paper discusses the performance goals and resource constraints for candidate Spartan Lite propulsion systems and uses them to specify quantitative requirements against which the systems are evaluated.

Urban, Mike↗
NASA NTRS1995

Hypersonic Combustor Model Inlet CFD Simulations and Experimental Comparisons

Numerous two-and three-dimensional computational simulations were performed for the inlet associated with the combustor model for the hypersonic propulsion experiment in the NASA Ames 16-Inch Shock Tunnel. The inlet was designed to produce a combustor-inlet flow that is nearly two-dimensional and of sufficient mass flow rate for large scale combustor testing. The three-dimensional simulations demonstrated that the inlet design met all the design objectives and that the inlet produced a very nearly two-dimensional combustor inflow profile. Numerous two-dimensional simulations were performed with various levels of approximations such as in the choice of chemical and physical models, as well as numerical approximations. Parametric studies were conducted to better understand and to characterize the inlet flow. Results from the two-and three-dimensional simulations were used to predict the mass flux entering the combustor and a mass flux correlation as a function of facility stagnation pressure was developed. Surface heat flux and pressure measurements were compared with the computed results and good agreement was found. The computational simulations helped determine the inlet low characteristics in the high enthalpy environment, the important parameters that affect the combustor-inlet flow, and the sensitivity of the inlet flow to various modeling assumptions.

Venkatapathy, E.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Manufactured Porous Ambient Surface Simulants

The planetary science decadal survey for 2013-2022 (Vision and Voyages, NRC 2011) has promoted mission concepts for sample acquisition from small solar system bodies. Numerous comet-sampling tools are in development to meet this standard. Manufactured Porous Ambient Surface Simulants (MPASS) materials provide an opportunity to simulate variable features at ambient temperatures and pressures to appropriately test potential sample acquisition systems for comets, asteroids, and planetary surfaces. The original "flavor" of MPASS materials is known as Manufactured Porous Ambient Comet Simulants (MPACS), which was developed in parallel with the development of the Biblade Comet Sampling System (Backes et al., in review). The current suite of MPACS materials was developed through research of the physical and mechanical properties of comets from past comet missions results and modeling efforts, coordination with the science community at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and testing of a wide range of materials and formulations. These simulants were required to represent the physical and mechanical properties of cometary nuclei, based on the current understanding of the science community. Working with cryogenic simulants can be tedious and costly; thus MPACS is a suite of ambient simulants that yields a brittle failure mode similar to that of cryogenic icy materials. Here we describe our suite of comet simulants known as MPACS that will be used to test and validate the Biblade Comet Sampling System (Backes et al., in review).

Carey, Elizabeth M.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Trajectories for High Specific Impulse High Specific Power Deep Space Exploration

Flight times and deliverable masses for electric and fusion propulsion systems are difficult to approximate. Numerical integration is required for these continuous thrust systems. Many scientists are not equipped with the tools and expertise to conduct interplanetary and interstellar trajectory analysis for their concepts. Several charts plotting the results of well-known trajectory simulation codes were developed and are contained in this paper. These charts illustrate the dependence of time of flight and payload ratio on jet power, initial mass, specific impulse and specific power. These charts are intended to be a tool by which people in the propulsion community can explore the possibilities of their propulsion system concepts. Trajectories were simulated using the tools VARITOP and IPOST. VARITOP is a well known trajectory optimization code that involves numerical integration based on calculus of variations. IPOST has several methods of trajectory simulation; the one used in this paper is Cowell's method for full integration of the equations of motion. An analytical method derived in the companion paper was also evaluated. The accuracy of this method is discussed in the paper.

Polsgrove, Tara↗
NASA NTRS2005

The Importance of Detailed Component Simulations in the Feedsystem Development for a Two-Stage-to Orbit Reusable Launch Vehicle

To meet the requirements for the 2nd Generation Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), a unique propulsion feed system concept was identified using crossfeed between the booster and orbiter stages that could reduce the Two-Stage-to-Orbit (TSTO) vehicle weight and development cost by approximately 25%. A Main Propulsion System (MPS) crossfeed water demonstration test program was configured to address all the activities required to reduce the risks for the MPS crossfeed system. A transient, one-dimensional system simulation was developed for the subscale crossfeed water flow tests. To ensure accurate representation of the crossfeed valve's dynamics in the system model, a high-fidelity, three-dimensional, computational fluid-dynamics (CFD) model was employed. The results from the CFD model were used to specify the valve's flow characteristics in the system simulation. This yielded a crossfeed system model that was anchored to the specific valve hardware and achieved good agreement with the measured test data. These results allowed the transient models to be correlated and validated and used for full scale mission predictions. The full scale model simulations indicate crossfeed is ' viable with the system pressure disturbances at the crossfeed transition being less than experienced by the propulsion system during engine start and shutdown transients.

Mazurkivich, Pete↗
NASA NTRS2003

Micromechanics-Based Computational Simulation of Ceramic Matrix Composites

Advanced high-temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) hold an enormous potential for use in aerospace propulsion system components and certain land-based applications. However, being relatively new materials, a reliable design properties database of sufficient fidelity does not yet exist. To characterize these materials solely by testing is cost and time prohibitive. Computational simulation then becomes very useful to limit the experimental effort and reduce the design cycle time, Authors have been involved for over a decade in developing micromechanics- based computational simulation techniques (computer codes) to simulate all aspects of CMC behavior including quantification of scatter that these materials exhibit. A brief summary/capability of these computer codes with typical examples along with their use in design/analysis of certain structural components is the subject matter of this presentation.

Murthy, Pappu L. N.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Development Progress in Phase 1 Fission Propulsion Systems

Phase 1 fission propulsion systems are those fission propulsion systems that are highly testable and require no development of nuclear fuels or materials. The systems can be developed without new or significantly modified facilities, have adequate performance for numerous missions of interest, and demonstrate technologies and programmatics that are traceable to Phase 2 and Phase 3 systems. Phase 1 fission propulsion systems focus on safety, cost and schedule. Phase 1 flight units can be tested at full thrust using resistance heaters to simulate heat from fission. The development and use of Phase 1 systems will help enable Phase 2 or Phase 3 fission propulsion systems capable of giving rapid, affordable access to any point in the solar system. A Phase 1 fission propulsion system under development at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in collaboration with individuals from Department of Energy Laboratories and industry is the Safe Affordable Fission Engine (SAFE). The propellant energy source of a 30 kW SAFE unit (SAFE-30) is being fabricated, and will begin testing at MSFC in FY00. The conceptual design of a 300 kW SAFE unit (SAFE-300)is nearing completion. Experiments have been performed on both SAFE-30 and SAFE-300 components. Module tests have confirmed the performance potential of the SAFE series of propulsion systems. This paper will report on the development status of the Phase 1 SAFE fission propulsion system.

Houts, Michael G.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Simulating Flights of Future Launch Vehicles and Spacecraft

Marshall Aerospace Vehicle Representation in C (MAVERIC) is a computer program for generic, low-to-high-fidelity simulation of the flight(s) of one or more launch vehicle(s) or spacecraft. MAVERIC is designed to accommodate multi-staged vehicles, powered serially or in parallel, with multiple engines, tanks, and cargo elements. Engines can be of jet or conventional rocket types, using either liquid or solid propellants. MAVERIC includes generic subsystem software models for propulsion systems, mass properties, reaction control systems, aerodynamic properties, guidance systems, and navigation systems. Simulations can be started at points other than liftoff. Also included are guidance-system software models that accommodate the ascent, orbit, coasting, deorbiting, entry, terminal-area-energy-management, approach, and landing phases of flight. Options to use different wind profiles and atmospheres are included. A Monte Carlo capability is provided for modeling dispersions associated with atmospheric effects (including winds), propulsion, navigation, aerodynamics, and mass properties. Failures of engines and other subsystems can be modeled. The program is written in the C programming language, which makes it possible for the program to have high degrees of modularity, reusability, and maintainability, thereby also facilitating modification for modeling new vehicles.

McCarter, James W.↗