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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 955 records · Page 53
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DOE OSTI2015

ON THE ORIGIN OF RADIO EMISSION FROM MAGNETARS

Magnetars are the most magnetized objects in the known universe. Powered by the magnetic energy, and not by the rotational energy as in the case of radio pulsars, they have long been regarded as a completely different class of neutron stars. The discovery of pulsed radio emission from a few magnetars weakened the idea of a clean separation between magnetars and normal pulsars. We use the partially screened gap (PSG) model to explain radio emission of magnetars. The PSG model requires that the temperature of the polar cap is equal to the so-called critical value, i.e., the temperature at which the thermal ions outflowing from the stellar surface screen the acceleration gap. We show that a magnetar has to fulfill the temperature, power, and visibility conditions in order to emit radio waves. First, in order to form PSG, the residual temperature of the surface has to be lower than the critical value. Second, since the radio emission is powered by the rotational energy, it has to be high enough to enable heating of the polar cap by backstreaming particles to the critical temperature. Finally, the structure of the magnetic field has to be altered by magnetospheric currents in order to widen a radio beam and increase the probability of detection. Our approach allows us to predict whether a magnetar can emit radio waves using only its rotational period, period derivative, and surface temperature in the quiescent mode.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Confirmation of a high magnetic field in GRO J1008–57

GRO J1008–57 is a high-mass X-ray binary for which several claims of a cyclotron resonance scattering feature near 80 keV have been reported. We use NuSTAR, Suzaku, and Swift data from its giant outburst of 2012 November to confirm the existence of the 80 keV feature and perform the most sensitive search to date for cyclotron scattering features at lower energies. We find evidence for a 78{sub −2}{sup +3} keV line in the NuSTAR and Suzaku data at >4σ significance, confirming the detection using Suzaku alone by Yamamoto et al. A search of both the phase-averaged and phase-resolved data rules out a fundamental at lower energies with optical depth larger than 5% of the 78 keV line. These results indicate that GRO J1008–57 has a magnetic field of 6.7 × 10{sup 12}(1 + z) G, the highest among known accreting pulsars.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

DUST CONTINUUM AND POLARIZATION FROM ENVELOPE TO CORES IN STAR FORMATION: A CASE STUDY IN THE W51 NORTH REGION

We present the first high-angular resolution (up to 0.''7, {approx}5000 AU) polarization and thermal dust continuum images toward the massive star-forming region W51 North. The observations were carried out with the Submillimeter Array (SMA) in both the subcompact (SMA-SubC) and extended (SMA-Ext) configurations at a wavelength of 870 {mu}m. W51 North is resolved into four cores (SMA1 to SMA4) in the 870 {mu}m continuum image. The associated dust polarization exhibits more complex structures than seen at lower angular resolution. We analyze the inferred morphologies of the plane-of-sky magnetic field (B ) in the SMA1 to SMA4 cores and in the envelope using the SMA-Ext and SMA-SubC data. These results are compared with the B archive images obtained from the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO) and James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT). The polarization percentage is about 1% to 4%, and it is found to decrease with higher intensity in our SMA images, which is a similar trend to that previously reported in the CSO and JCMT data. A correlation between dust intensity gradient position angles ({phi}{sub {nabla}I}) and magnetic field position angles ({phi}{sub B}) is found in the CSO, JCMT, and both SMA data sets. This correlation is further analyzed quantitatively. A systematically tighter correlation between {phi}{sub {nabla}I} and {phi}{sub B} is found in the cores, whereas the correlation decreases in outside-core regions. Magnetic field-to-gravity force ratio ({Sigma}{sub B}) maps are derived using the newly developed polarization-intensity gradient method by Koch et al. We find that the force ratios tend to be small ({Sigma}{sub B} {approx}< 0.5) in the cores in all four data sets. In regions outside of the cores, the ratios increase or the field is even dominating gravity ({Sigma}{sub B} > 1). This possibly provides a physical explanation of the tightening correlation between {phi}{sub {nabla}I} and {phi}{sub B} in the cores: The more the B field lines are dragged and aligned by gravity, the tighter the correlation is. Finally, we propose a schematic scenario for the magnetic field in W51 North to interpret the four polarization observations at different physical scales.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

THE ZEEMAN EFFECT IN THE 44 GHZ CLASS I METHANOL MASER LINE TOWARD DR21(OH)

We report detection of the Zeeman effect in the 44 GHz Class I methanol maser line, toward the star-forming region DR21(OH). In a 219 Jy beam{sup −1} maser centered at an LSR velocity of 0.83 km s{sup −1}, we find a 20- σ detection of zB {sub los} = 53.5 ± 2.7 Hz. If 44 GHz methanol masers are excited at n ∼ 10{sup 7–8} cm{sup −3}, then the B versus n {sup 1/2} relation would imply, from comparison with Zeeman effect detections in the CN(1 − 0) line toward DR21(OH), that magnetic fields traced by 44 GHz methanol masers in DR21(OH) should be ∼10 mG. Combined with our detected zB {sub los} = 53.5 Hz, this would imply that the value of the 44 GHz methanol Zeeman splitting factor z is ∼5 Hz mG{sup −1}. Such small values of z would not be a surprise, as the methanol molecule is non-paramagnetic, like H{sub 2}O. Empirical attempts to determine z , as demonstrated, are important because there currently are no laboratory measurements or theoretically calculated values of z for the 44 GHz CH{sub 3}OH transition. Data from observations of a larger number of sources are needed to make such empirical determinations robust.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

The challenge in making models of fast CMEs

It has been a challenge to explain theoretically how fast CMEs (exceeding {approx} 1,000km/s) occur. Our numerical models suggest that it is not easy to release enough magnetic energy impulsively from an active region. We have been studying CME models that are constrained by observed magnetic fields, with realistic coronal plasma density and temperature profiles, as derived from thermodynamic models of the corona. We find that to get fast CMEs, the important parameters are the magnetic energy density, the magnetic field drop-off index, and the Alfven speed profile in active regions. We describe how we energize active regions, and how we subsequently initiate CMEs via flux cancellation. We contrast CMEs from idealized zero-beta models with more sophisticated models based on thermodynamic solutions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

An X-ray flare from 47 Cas

Using XMM-Newton observations, we investigate properties of a flare from the very active but poorly known stellar system 47 Cas. The luminosity at the peak of the flare is found to be 3.54 × 10{sup 30} erg s{sup −1}, which is ∼2 times higher than that at a quiescent state. The quiescent state corona of 47 Cas can be represented by two temperature plasma: 3.7 and 11.0 MK. The time-resolved X-ray spectroscopy of the flare show the variable nature of the temperature, the emission measure, and the abundance. The maximum temperature during the flare is derived as 72.8 MK. We infer the length of a flaring loop to be 3.3 × 10{sup 10} cm using a hydrodynamic loop model. Using the RGS spectra, the density during the flare is estimated as 4.0 × 10{sup 10} cm{sup −3}. The loop scaling laws are also applied when deriving physical parameters of the flaring plasma.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

MODELING THE FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF RADIO BEAMS FOR CONE-DOMINANT PULSARS

Beam radii for cone-dominant pulsars follow a power-law relation with frequency, thetav = ({nu}/{nu}{sub 0}) {sup k} + thetav{sub 0}, which has not been well explained in previous works. We study this frequency dependence of beam radius (FDB) for cone-dominant pulsars by using the curvature radiation mechanism. Considering various density and energy distributions of particles in the pulsar open field-line region, we numerically simulate the emission intensity distribution across emission height and rotation phase, get integrated profiles at different frequencies, and obtain the FDB curves. For the density model of a conal-like distribution, the simulated profiles always shrink to one component at high frequencies. In the density model with two separated density patches, the profiles generally have two distinct components, and the power-law indices k are found to be in the range from -0.1 to -2.5, consistent with observational results. Energy distributions of streaming particles have significant influence on the frequency-dependence behavior. Radial energy decay of particles is desired to get proper thetav{sub 0} in models. We conclude that by using the curvature radiation mechanism, the observed FDB for the cone-dominant pulsars can only be explained by the emission model of particles in two density patches with a Gaussian energy distribution and a radial energy loss.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

Reappearance of Mcneil's nebula (V1647 Orionis) and its outburst environment

We present a detailed study of McNeil's nebula (V1647 Ori) in its ongoing outburst phase starting from 2008 September to 2013 March. Our 124 nights of photometric observations were carried out in optical V, R, I, and near-infrared J, H, K bands, and 59 nights of medium-resolution spectroscopic observations were done in the 5200-9000 Å wavelength range. All observations were carried out with the 2 m Himalayan Chandra Telescope and 2 m IUCAA Girawali Telescope. Our observations show that over the past four and a half years, V1647 Ori and region C near the Herbig-Haro object HH 22A have been undergoing a slow dimming at a rate of ∼0.04 mag yr{sup –1} and ∼0.05 mag yr{sup –1}, respectively, in R band, which is six times slower than the rate during a similar stage of V1647 Ori in the 2003 outburst. We detected change in flux distribution over the reflection nebula, implying changes in circumstellar matter distribution between the 2003 and 2008 outbursts. Apart from steady wind of velocity ∼350 km s{sup –1}, we detected two episodic magnetic reconnection driven winds. Forbidden [O I] λ6300 and [Fe II] λ7155 lines were also detected, implying shock regions probably from jets. We tried to explain the outburst timescales of V1647 Ori using the standard models of the FUors kind of outburst and found that pure thermal instability models like Bell and Lin cannot explain the variations in timescales. In the framework of various instability models we conclude that one possible reason for the sudden ending of the 2003 outburst in 2005 November was a low-density region or gap in the inner region (∼1 AU) of the disk.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Variations of cyclotron line energy with luminosity in accreting X-ray pulsars

I develop a new model for changes of cyclotron line energy with luminosity based on changes in polar cap dimensions and the direction of photon propagation as well as a shock height. In X0115+63 and V0332+53, the fundamental cyclotron line energy has been observed to decrease with increasing luminosity. This phenomenon has been interpreted as a change of a shock height with luminosity. However, the rates of the observed changes are quite different, in which the line energy in V0332+53 varies slowly with luminosity compared with that in X0115+63. I demonstrate that a new model successfully reproduces the changes of the fundamental cyclotron line energies with luminosity in both X0115+63 and V0332+53. On the other hand, the cyclotron line energies in Her X–1, GX301–2, and GX304–1 were reported to increase with increasing luminosity. I discuss the positive correlation between the cyclotron line energy and luminosity based on changes in a beam pattern for Her X–1, GX301–2, and GX304–1. In addition, I discuss how a switch of the predominant, observed emission region from pole1 to pole2 influences cyclotron line energy for GX304–1 and A0535+26.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Formation of magnetized prestellar cores with ambipolar diffusion and turbulence

We investigate the roles of magnetic fields and ambipolar diffusion during prestellar core formation in turbulent giant molecular clouds, using three-dimensional numerical simulations. Our simulations focus on the shocked layer produced by a converging large-scale flow and survey varying ionization and the angle between the upstream flow and magnetic field. We also include ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and hydrodynamic models. From our simulations, we identify hundreds of self-gravitating cores that form within 1 Myr, with masses M ∼ 0.04-2.5 M {sub ☉} and sizes L ∼ 0.015-0.07 pc, consistent with observations of the peak of the core mass function. Median values are M = 0.47 M {sub ☉} and L = 0.03 pc. Core masses and sizes do not depend on either the ionization or upstream magnetic field direction. In contrast, the mass-to-flux ratio does increase with lower ionization, from twice to four times the critical value. The higher mass-to-flux ratio for low ionization is the result of enhanced transient ambipolar diffusion when the shocked layer first forms. However, ambipolar diffusion is not necessary to form low-mass supercritical cores. For ideal MHD, we find similar masses to other cases. These masses are one to two orders of magnitude lower than the value M {sub mag,} {sub sph} = 0.007B {sup 3}/(G {sup 3/2}ρ{sup 2}) that defines a magnetically supercritical sphere under post-shock ambient conditions. This discrepancy is the result of anisotropic contraction along field lines, which is clearly evident in both ideal MHD and diffusive simulations. We interpret our numerical findings using a simple scaling argument that suggests that gravitationally critical core masses will depend on the sound speed and mean turbulent pressure in a cloud, regardless of magnetic effects.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Constrained simulation of the Bullet Cluster

In this work, we report on a detailed simulation of the Bullet Cluster (1E0657-56) merger, including magnetohydrodynamics, plasma cooling, and adaptive mesh refinement. We constrain the simulation with data from gravitational lensing reconstructions and the 0.5-2 keV Chandra X-ray flux map, then compare the resulting model to higher energy X-ray fluxes, the extracted plasma temperature map, Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect measurements, and cluster halo radio emission. We constrain the initial conditions by minimizing the chi-squared figure of merit between the full two-dimensional (2D) observational data sets and the simulation, rather than comparing only a few features such as the location of subcluster centroids, as in previous studies. A simple initial configuration of two triaxial clusters with Navarro-Frenk-White dark matter profiles and physically reasonable plasma profiles gives a good fit to the current observational morphology and X-ray emissions of the merging clusters. There is no need for unconventional physics or extreme infall velocities. The study gives insight into the astrophysical processes at play during a galaxy cluster merger, and constrains the strength and coherence length of the magnetic fields. The techniques developed here to create realistic, stable, triaxial clusters, and to utilize the totality of the 2D image data, will be applicable to future simulation studies of other merging clusters. This approach of constrained simulation, when applied to well-measured systems, should be a powerful complement to present tools for understanding X-ray clusters and their magnetic fields, and the processes governing their formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Physical and chemical characteristics of L1689-SMM16, an oscillating prestellar core in Ophiuchus

We present single-dish observations of the L1689-SMM16 core in the Ophiuchus molecular cloud in NH{sub 3} (1, 1) and (2, 2) emission using the Green Bank Telescope, in N{sub 2}H{sup +} (1-0) emission using the Nobeyama Radio Observatory, and in NH{sub 2}D (1{sub 1,1}{sup a}(--)1{sub 0,1}{sup s}), HCN (1-0), HNC (1-0), H{sup 13}CO{sup +} (1-0), and HCO{sup +} (1-0) emission using the Mopra telescope. The morphologies of the integrated NH{sub 3} (1, 1) and N{sub 2}H{sup +} (1-0) emission well match that of 250 μm continuum emission. Line widths of NH{sub 3} (1, 1) and N{sub 2}H{sup +} (1-0) show the presence of transonic turbulence across the core. Jeans and virial analyses made using updated measurements of core mass and size confirm that L1689-SMM16 is prestellar, i.e., gravitationally bound. It also has accumulated more mass compared to its corresponding Jeans mass in the absence of magnetic fields and therefore is a 'super-Jeans' core. The high levels of X(NH{sub 3})/X(N{sub 2}H{sup +}) and deuterium fractionation reinforce the idea that the core has not yet formed a protostar. Comparing the physical parameters of the core with those of a Bonnor-Ebert sphere reveals the advanced evolutionary stage of L1689-SMM16 and shows that it might be unstable to collapse. We do not detect any evidence of infall motions toward the core. Instead, red asymmetry in the line profiles of HCN (1-0) and HNC (1-0) indicates the expansion of the outer layers of the core at a speed of ∼0.2 km s{sup –1} to 0.3 km s{sup –1}. For a gravitationally bound core, expansion in the outer layers might indicate that the core is experiencing oscillations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Impulsive energy release and non-thermal emission in a confined M4.0 flare triggered by rapidly evolving magnetic structures

We present observations of a confined M4.0 flare from NOAA 11302 on 2011 September 26. Observations at high temporal, spatial, and spectral resolution from the Solar Dynamics Observatory, Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager, and Nobeyama Radioheliograph observations enabled us to explore the possible triggering and energy release processes of this flare despite its very impulsive behavior and compact morphology. The flare light curves exhibit an abrupt rise of non-thermal emission with co-temporal hard X-ray (HXR) and microwave (MW) bursts that peaked instantly without any precursor emission. This stage was associated with HXR emission up to 200 keV that followed a power law with photon spectral index (γ) ∼ 3. Another non-thermal peak, observed 32 s later, was more pronounced in the MW flux than the HXR profiles. Dual peaked structures in the MW and HXR light curves suggest a two-step magnetic reconnection process. Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) images exhibit a sequential evolution of the inner and outer core regions of magnetic loop systems while the overlying loop configuration remained unaltered. Combined observations in HXR, (E)UV, and Hα provide support for flare models involving the interaction of coronal loops. The magnetograms obtained by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager reveal emergence of magnetic flux that began ∼five hr before the flare. However, the more crucial changes in the photospheric magnetic flux occurred about one minute prior to the flare onset with opposite polarity magnetic transients appearing at the early flare location within the inner core region. The spectral, temporal, and spatial properties of magnetic transients suggest that the sudden changes in the small-scale magnetic field have likely triggered the flare by destabilizing the highly sheared pre-flare magnetic configuration.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Feathering instability of spiral arms. II. Parameter study

We report the results of a parameter study of the feathering stability in the galactic spiral arms. A two-dimensional, razor-thin magnetized self-gravitating gas disk with an imposed two-armed stellar spiral structure is considered. Using the formulation developed previously by Lee and Shu, a linear stability analysis of the spiral shock is performed in a localized Cartesian geometry. Results of the parameter study of the base state with a spiral shock are also presented. The single-mode feathering instability that leads to growing perturbations may explain the feathering phenomenon found in nearby spiral galaxies. The self-gravity of the gas, characterized by its average surface density, is an important parameter that (1) shifts the spiral shock farther downstream and (2) increases the growth rate and decreases the characteristic spacing of the feathering structure due to the instability. On the other hand, while the magnetic field suppresses the velocity fluctuation associated with the feathers, it does not strongly affect their growth rate. Using a set of typical parameters of the grand-design spiral galaxy M51 at 2 kpc from the center, the spacing of the feathers with the maximum growth rate is found to be 530 pc, which agrees with the previous observational studies.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Modeling MHD accretion-ejection—from the launching area to propagation scales

We present the results of axisymmetric magnetohydrodynamic simulations investigating the launching of jets and outflows from a magnetically diffusive accretion disk. The time evolution of the disk structure is self-consistently taken into account. In contrast to previous works, we have applied spherical coordinates for the numerical grid, implying substantial benefits concerning the numerical resolution and the stability of the simulation. Due to the new setup, we were able to run simulations for more than 150,000 dynamical times on a domain extending 1500 inner disk radii with a resolution of up to 24 cells per disk height in the inner disk. Depending on the disk magnetization, jet launching occurs in two different but complementary regimes—jets driven predominantly by centrifugal or magnetic forces. These regimes differ in the ejection efficiency concerning mass, energy, and angular momentum. We show that it is the actual disk magnetization and not so much the initial magnetization that best describes the disk-jet evolution. Considering the actual disk magnetization, we also find that simulations starting with different initial magnetization evolve in a similar—typical—way, due to advection and diffusion, as the magnetic flux in the disk evolves in time. Exploring a new, modified diffusivity model, we confirm the self-similar structure of the global jet-launching disk, obtaining power laws for the radial profiles of the disk physical variables such as density, magnetic field strength, or accretion velocity.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

High-energy X-ray imaging of the pulsar wind nebula MSH 15–52: constraints on particle acceleration and transport

We present the first images of the pulsar wind nebula (PWN) MSH 15–52 in the hard X-ray band (≳8 keV), as measured with the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR). Overall, the morphology of the PWN as measured by NuSTAR in the 3-7 keV band is similar to that seen in Chandra high-resolution imaging. However, the spatial extent decreases with energy, which we attribute to synchrotron energy losses as the particles move away from the shock. The hard-band maps show a relative deficit of counts in the northern region toward the RCW 89 thermal remnant, with significant asymmetry. We find that the integrated PWN spectra measured with NuSTAR and Chandra suggest that there is a spectral break at 6 keV, which may be explained by a break in the synchrotron-emitting electron distribution at ∼200 TeV and/or imperfect cross calibration. We also measure spatially resolved spectra, showing that the spectrum of the PWN softens away from the central pulsar B1509–58, and that there exists a roughly sinusoidal variation of spectral hardness in the azimuthal direction. We discuss the results using particle flow models. We find non-monotonic structure in the variation with distance of spectral hardness within 50'' of the pulsar moving in the jet direction, which may imply particle and magnetic-field compression by magnetic hoop stress as previously suggested for this source. We also present two-dimensional maps of spectral parameters and find an interesting shell-like structure in the N {sub H} map. We discuss possible origins of the shell-like structure and their implications.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

The formation and launch of a coronal mass ejection flux rope: a narrative based on observations

We present a data-driven narrative of the launch and early evolution of the magnetic structure that gave rise to the coronal mass ejection (CME) on 2008 December 12. The structure formed on December 7 and launched early on December 12. We interpret this structure as a flux rope based on prelaunch morphology, postlaunch magnetic measurements, and the lack of large-scale magnetic reconnection signatures at launch. We ascribe three separate onset mechanisms to the complete disconnection of the flux rope from the Sun. It took 19 hr for the flux rope to be fully removed from the Sun, by which time the segment that first disconnected was around 40 R {sub ☉} away. This implies that the original flux rope was stretched or broken; we provide evidence for a possible bisection. A transient dark arcade was observed on the Sun that was later obscured by a bright arcade, which we interpret as the strapping field stretching and magnetically reconnecting as it disconnected from the coronal field. We identify three separate structures in coronagraph images to be manifestations of the same original flux rope, and we describe the implications for CME interpretation. We cite the rotation in the central flux rope vector of the magnetic clouds observed in situ by ACE/Wind and STEREO-B as evidence of the kink instability of the eastern segment of the flux rope. Finally, we discuss possible alternative narratives, including multiple prelaunch magnetic structures and the nonflux rope scenario. Our results support the view that, in at least some CMEs, flux rope formation occurs before launch.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

KINEMATICS IN PARTIALLY IONIZED MOLECULAR CLOUDS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TRANSITION TO COHERENCE

A previous paper by Bailey and Basu shows analysis of density and mass-to-flux ratio maps for simulations with either an ionization profile which takes into account photoionization (step-like profile) or a cosmic ray only ionization profile. We extend this study to analyze the effect of these ionization profiles on velocity structures, kinematics, and synthetic spectra. Clump regions are found to occur at the convergence of two flows with a low velocity region and velocity direction transition occurring at the junction. Models with evident substructure show that core formation occurs on the periphery of these velocity valleys. Analysis of synthetic spectra reveals the presence of large non-thermal components within low-density gas, especially for models with the step-like ionization profile. All cores show small, sub-thermal relative motions compared to background gas. Large deviations within this analysis are due to the line of sight intersecting low- and high-density regions across the velocity switch transition. Positive deviations correspond to a foreground core moving away from the observer while negative deviations correspond to a background core moving toward the observer. Comparison of velocities resulting from different ionization profiles suggest that high ionization fractions yield supersonic velocities, up to two times the sound speed, while regions with low ionization fractions tend to be subsonic or mildly supersonic. This suggests that the transition to coherence within cores could be a transition between high and low ionization fractions within the gas.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗