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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Lunar Water Pilot Plant Conceptual Design

A study was conducted to determine mass, power, and concept of operations for a polar water pilot plant that can produce 1000 kg of oxygen in a year from 1125 kg of water extracted from the icy regolith in a permanently shadowed region(PSR). Icy regolith in the PSR is excavated and delivered to a stationary dryer that extracts the water which is frozen in an ice tanker and delivered up to the ridge for further processing into oxygen and hydrogen. This study assumed a previously landed nuclear reactor was available in the PSR to provide power for the water extraction, which requires 2.4 kW of power, including a 30 percent margin. At 325 kg, the ISRU system mass in the PSR, including the excavator, should be deliverable by one of the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) landers, and the packaging and concept of operations are shown using one specific CLPS lander. The mass and power of the ISRU system components on the ridge for water electrolysis and liquefaction and storage of the oxygen and hydrogen are estimated at 840 kg and 4.3 kW.

Lunar↗

NASA NTRS1982

Chronic central vascular expansion induces hypokalemia in conscious primates

Central vascular expansion maintained for four days in conscious squirrel monkeys reconciles the apparently conflicting short-term fluid and electrolyte responses to water immersion and atrial balloon distension, with those described for prolonged weightlessness during space flight. The monkeys are subjected to an increased lower body positive air pressure (LBPP) of 20 torr which produces a 3 cm water increase in the central venous pressure. Results show a marked increase in the urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, and water during the firxt six hours of LBPP, and the diuresis is maintained throughout the period of LBPP, although the levels of sodium and potassium excretion decline after 24 hours of exposure. Plasma aldosterone transiently drops within the first three hours of LBPP, and then regains normal levels within 24 hours, after which time these levels are maintained despite the continued LBPP stimulus. It is suggested that the normal plasma aldosterone levels observed in the experiments, as well as during space flight, might, epresent a relative hyposecretion in terms of volume homeostasis and a relative hypersecretion with respect to plasma potassium regulation. Thus, kaliuresis and marked natriuresis is confined primarly to the first 24 hours of central volume expansion, a period for which comparable data from space flights are lacking.

Moore-Ede, M. C.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Calderas produced by hydromagmatic eruptions through permafrost in northwest Alaska

Most hydromagmatic eruptions on Earth are generated by interactions of lava and ground or surface water. This eruptive process typically produces craters 0.1-1 km in diameter, although a few as large as 1-2 km were described. In contrast, a series of Pleistocene hydromagmatic eruptions through 80-100-m-thick permafrost on the Seward Peninsula of Alaska produced four craters 3-8 km in diameter. These craters, called the Espenberg maars, are the four largest maars known on Earth. The thermodynamic properties of ground ice influence the rate and amount of water melted during the course of the eruption. Large quantities of water are present, but only small amounts can be melted at any time to interact with magma. This would tend to produce sustained and highly explosive low water/magma (fuel-coolant) ratios during the eruptions. An area of 400 km(sub 2) around the Alaskan maars shows strong reductions in the density of thaw lakes, ground ice, and other surface manifestations of permafrost because of deep burial by coeval tephra falls. The unusually large Espenberg maars are the first examples of calderas produced by hydromagmatic eruptions. These distinctive landforms can apparently be used as an indicator of the presence of permafrost at the time of eruption.

Beget, J. E.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Cations Affect Water Activation on Pt(111) in Alkaline Media

Water activation, oxidatively to produce surface-bound hydroxide (OH*) or reductively to form surface-bound hydrogen (H*) atoms, is ubiquitous in electrocatalysis. We report the impact of cations on the kinetics of the OH* and H* formation from water on single-crystal Pt(111) in alkaline using fast-scan-rate cyclic voltammetry. Isolating the dependence of the electro-adsorption kinetics on pH and ionic strength led to the observation that ion concentrations affected the OH* formation kinetics more strongly than pH. The H* formation exhibited similar behavior, even though the OH* formation rate was observed to be faster by >10x. We attributed the observed ion concentration effect to cations, given that switching cations (from Na + to Li + ) had a bigger impact on the H* and OH* formation rates than switching pH (effectively changing OH – to F – ). We hypothesize the cations softened and allowed the interfacial water layer to more easily reorganize. This result suggests that interfacial water disruption should benefit both H* and OH* electro-adsorption kinetics in alkaline electrolytes.

Lin, Chia-Yi [Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY (United St↗

DOE OSTI2021

Fundamental Studies of Tritium Diffusivity in Pure and Defective Zircaloy-4 Getters (Tritium Science Program FY2020 Report)

Zirconium (Zr) alloys are extensively used as tritium (T) getters in nuclear reactors due to their low absorption cross section to thermal neutron, good mechanical properties at high temperature and resistant to corrosion in different environmental conditions. Zr alloys have better thermal properties than many other refractory alloys including stainless steel. The nuclear characteristic is simulated, and T is produced in tritium-producing burnable absorber rods (TPBAR) by the irradiation of neutron flux in pressurized water reactor (PWR). T thus produced diffuses through the pellets and is captured by the getter where it chemically reacts with Zr to form metal hydride (ZrTx). These hydrides are brittle and affect adversely the mechanical properties of alloys. In addition to that, mismatch in the lattice structures after hydride formation creates a stress which needs to be considered in component design and their life evaluation. Therefore, understanding the behavior of T and its species becomes significant as fuel burnup is increased, which leads to increase in hydrogen pickup and oxide formation. The transport of T and its species in pure Zr alloys, and in alloys with certain alloying elements and defects are important to understand in order to enhance the performance of the materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS1988

The behavior of water vapor in the Mars atmosphere

The behavior of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars is important to understanding the Mars climate and its evolution as well as the nature of ongoing seasonal processes of exchange and transport. On the seasonal timescales, exchange of water between the atmosphere, regolith, and polar caps combine with advection of water and the possible saturation at some locations and seasons in order to produce the observed distribution of water. A summary of the observations made by the Mariner and Viking spacecraft and analyses of the seasonal cycle of water is presented, along with a brief discussion of the implications for the long term variability of water. The upcoming Mars Observer mission is also briefly discussed.

Jakosky, Bruce M.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Inertial collapse of a gas bubble in a shear flow near a rigid wall

Despite the extensive research on bubble collapse near rigid walls, the bubble collapse dynamics in the presence of shear flow near a rigid wall is poorly understood. We conduct direct simulations of the Navier–Stokes equations to explore the bubble dynamics and pressures during bubble collapse near a rigid, flat wall under linear shear flow conditions. We examine the dependence of the bubble collapse morphology and wall pressures on the initial bubble location and shear rate. We find that shear distorts the bubble, generating two re-entrant jets – one developing from the side opposite to the mean flow and the other from the far end toward the wall. Upon impact of the jet on the opposite side of the bubble, water-hammer shocks are produced, which propagate outward and interact with the convoluted bubble shape. The shock stretches the bubble towards the wall, resulting in a closer impact location for the jet originating from the far end compared with the case with no shear flow. The water-hammer pressure location can be approximated as the theoretical distance travelled by a particle initialised at the bubble centre with the corresponding constant shear flow velocity. The maximum wall pressures can thus be predicted by considering the distance between the far jet impingement location and the wall along the wall-normal direction. As the shear rate is increased, the maximum wall pressure increases, although only marginally. We determine the critical initial stand-off distance from the wall at which the bubble morphology is shear dominated, i.e. characterised by converging re-entrant jets.

Bhola, Sahil (ORCID:0000000236766302)↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Radiocatalyst for Radiation Protection and Microbial Control

Radiocatalysts are materials that reduce the activation energy required to split water into hydrogen and reactive oxygen species (ROS). They are activated by radiation and can be used to improve the ability of water to act as a radiation barrier. This paper reports the results of an experimental evaluation of a gold radiocatalyst. This work provides a preliminary evaluation of the ability of these types of catalysts to increase the efficiency of water hydrolysis when exposed to different types of radiation (GCR). Although the radiation exposure devices used in this testing were not capable of generating radiation as diverse as is commonly found in space, the testing is useful in evaluating the function of these radiocatalytic nanoparticles when exposed to a a subset of the types of radiation that are found in GCR. The results are relevant to evaluating the use of this material for both space radiation protection and the production of useful byproducts, such as ROS, which can be used to maintain the sterility of stored water supplies. Radiocatalysts are materials typically used in radiation cancer therapy to improve the kill rate of tumors. These nanoparticles can be directly injected into tumors or functionalized to enter tumor cells via the blood stream. When they are exposed to radiation, they produce ROS. ROS are water hydrolysis products such as OH¯, O¯, O3, H2O2. This study used radiocatalytic 1.8 nm gold nanoparticles functionalized with citrate. These nanoparticles were tested through exposure to Xrays, 56Fe particles and gamma rays to demonstrate activity to a variety of radiation sources. The results demonstrate that radiocatalysts can improve the radiation absorption of water by a factor of 3 to 8 and can effectively kill bacteria at radiation levels above 1 Gy.

radiocatalyst radiation protection biocide↗

DOE OSTI2023

Influences of Cloud Microphysics on the Components of Solar Irradiance in the WRF-Solar Model

An accurate forecast of Global Horizontal solar Irradiance (GHI) and Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) in cloudy conditions remains a major challenge in the solar energy industry. This study focuses on the impact of cloud microphysics on GHI and its partition into DNI and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) using the Weather Research and Forecasting model specifically designed for solar radiation applications (WRF-Solar) and seven microphysical schemes. Three stratocumulus (Sc) and five shallow cumulus (Cu) cases are simulated and evaluated against measurements at the US Department of Energy’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility, Southern Great Plains (SGP) site. Results show that different microphysical schemes lead to spreads in simulated solar irradiance components up to 75% and 350% from their ensemble means in the Cu and Sc cases, respectively. The Cu cases have smaller microphysical sensitivity due to a limited cloud fraction and smaller domain-averaged cloud water mixing ratio compared to Sc cases. Cloud properties also influence the partition of GHI into DNI and DHI, and the model simulates better GHI than DNI and DHI due to a non-physical error compensation between DNI and DHI. The microphysical schemes that produce more accurate liquid water paths and effective radii of cloud droplets have a better overall performance.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1972

Apollo 15 contamination photography

The problem of optical contamination in the form of particulates in the vicinity of a spacecraft has been a source of concern for any astronomical experiment that must be performed in sunlight. This concern prompted a photographic photometric experiment on Apollo 15 to measure the brightness of the residual contamination cloud as well as the cloud produced by dumping waste water overboard. An upper limit of 10 to the minus 12.3 power B (B designates the brightness of the solar disc) was placed on the residual cloud at a 90 deg sun angle, which is comparable to the zodiacal light. The brightness of the cloud produced by the waste dump was estimated to be 10 to the minus 9.2 power B. It was observed to decrease rapidly to 10 to the -11.6 power B in minutes, then fluctuate in brightness for at least 25 minutes as additional material left the spacecraft. The cloud was observed to consist of individually resolved particle tracks estimated to be particles ranging from millimeters to centimeters in diameter in addition to a background of unresolved particles with an average diameter of 10.5 microns. Most of the tracks proceeded in straight-line paths from the dump nozzle. Several tracks violated this direction, apparently having been scattered by collisions. A few tracks appeared to have definite curvatures, which are believed to be caused by charged particle interactions.

Naumann, R. J.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Geothermal Deep Direct Use for Turbine Inlet Cooling in East Texas

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the Southern Methodist University Geothermal Laboratory (SMU), Eastman Chemical (Longview, TX), and TAS (Houston, TX) evaluated the feasibility of using geothermal heat to improve the performance of a natural-gas power plant in East Texas. The area of interest is the Eastman Chemical plant in Longview, Texas, which is on the northwestern margin of a geologic region known as the Sabine Uplift. The feasibility study focused on determining the potential for accessing a subsurface hot-water geothermal resource within a 10-km radius of the site to provide thermal energy for absorption chillers. Wells within a 20-km radius are included for broader geological comparison to determine the heat flow, temperature-at-depth, field porosity and permeability. The lithologies of most interest are the Lower Cretaceous Trinity Group and Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley Group. The deeper Cotton Valley formations are hotter (averaging 117 to 130°C), yet permeability and porosity are low. The shallower Trinity Group contains more variability in permeability and porosity and lower temperatures averaging about 98 to 117°C. The shallower formations are considered despite the lower temperature because of increased ability to produce larger volumes of water and extract enough heat before reinjection. The complete SMU analysis is available in the National Geothermal Data System (NGDS). Tapping such deep geothermal sources for direct heating (as opposed to power generation) is known as geothermal deep direct use (DDU). Geothermal DDU has potential across a wide swath of the United States but is underutilized due to challenging project economics associated with developing a deep geothermal resource for what are typically small-scale, variable-demand projects. This project examines the feasibility of geothermal energy integration in a natural-gas combined cycle power station in East Texas. The DDU resource is tapped to drive absorption chillers (24/7) for production of chilled water at 5-10°C (41-50°F). This chilled water is stored until needed, which allows for continuous operation with a relatively small-capacity geothermal/absorption chiller system. When conditions are favorable, the chilled water is dispatched to cool the air entering the compressor stage of a gas combustion turbine. This process, known as turbine inlet cooling (TIC), boosts power production during periods of high temperature and high-power demand. Such systems can enhance grid reliability and reduce the cost for peak-demand power. A simulation model of the power plant was developed in IPSEpro software and validated against operational data from the plant. This model allowed the team to estimate the additional power that could be produced by applying TIC under different operating and ambient conditions. Absorption chiller performance was estimated from vendor sources to determine the production rate of chilled water from the geothermal resource. Geothermal drilling and development costs were estimated using NREL's GEOPHIRES 2.0. The expected lower drilling costs in this region led to an estimated cost of geothermal heat of about $4/MMBtu (1.4 cents/kWh t ). The estimated cost for the absorption chillers and TIC hardware were obtained from literature sources and project partners. Hourly data were obtained for weather, natural gas and electricity prices, and plant operating state for 2017, which served as a representative year. NREL estimated the capital cost, operating cost, and additional electricity production and revenue for different combinations of geothermal capacity, chiller capacity, and water storage-tank size. The analysis drove toward smaller geothermal and chiller systems to reduce equipment cost. A relatively low-cost water storage tank accumulated the near-continuous chilled water output for later use when TIC was most valued.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Photocatalytic water splitting

With the goal of achieving large-scale H 2 production from renewable resources, water splitting into H 2 and O 2 using semiconductor photocatalysts (sometimes called artificial photosynthesis) has been studied for five decades. Unfortunately, the lack of rigour and reproducibility in the data collection and analysis of experimental results has hindered progress in the field. This Primer provides a comprehensive overview of proper characterization and evaluation of photocatalysts for overall water splitting. In particular, the Primer covers various pitfalls in photocatalysis research, best practices for reproducibility and reliable methods for conducting rigorous experiments. As a result, the recommendations are intended to reduce false positives in the literature and to promote progress towards a practical technology for producing H 2 from water by using sunlight.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1984

Mesoscale analysis of VAS 6.7 micron image data for several case studies

Several case studies are examined in an attempt to relate Visible infrared spin scan radiometers Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) water vapor channel radiance data to atmospheric moisture. Since the 6.7 micrometer channel detects radiation emitted by atmospheric water vapor from a rather thick layer, a scheme is developed which weighted rawinsonde observations of relative humidity in a similar manner. A comparison of the two fields (weighted relative humidity values from gridded rawinsonde observations and the VAS water vapor image) indicates that even when mesoscale data are used, the technique only presented a smooth representation of the radiance field. This weighting function is dependent on both the temperature and moisture distribution of the atmosphere. Cross sections of relative humidity from the mesoscale rawinsondes are produced which sliced the water vapor imagery in particularly interesting regions (areas of high and low blackbody temperatures). Comparisons are then made between the cross sections and the variations in the VAS radiance data along the cross section line. Bright regions in the water vapor imagery (cold blackbody temperatures) are often associated with thin layers of high relative humidity or thick layers of only moderately moist air. The reverse also applies, i.e., dark regions (warm blackbody temperatures) in the imagery corresponded well with very dry regions in the cross sections.

Jedlovec, G. J.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Mesoscale analysis of 6.7 micron image data from the VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) for several case studies

Jedlovec, G. J.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Final Report for Intravenous Fluid Generation (IVGEN) Spaceflight Experiment

NASA designed and operated the Intravenous Fluid Generation (IVGEN) experiment onboard the International Space Station (ISS), Increment 23/24, during May 2010. This hardware was a demonstration experiment to generate intravenous (IV) fluid from ISS Water Processing Assembly (WPA) potable water using a water purification technique and pharmaceutical mixing system. The IVGEN experiment utilizes a deionizing resin bed to remove contaminants from feedstock water to a purity level that meets the standards of the United States Pharmacopeia (USP), the governing body for pharmaceuticals in the United States. The water was then introduced into an IV bag where the fluid was mixed with USP-grade crystalline salt to produce USP normal saline (NS). Inline conductivity sensors quantified the feedstock water quality, output water purity, and NS mixing uniformity. Six 1.5-L bags of purified water were produced. Two of these bags were mixed with sodium chloride to make 0.9 percent NS solution. These two bags were returned to Earth to test for compliance with USP requirements. On-orbit results indicated that all of the experimental success criteria were met with the exception of the salt concentration. Problems with a large air bubble in the first bag of purified water resulted in a slightly concentrated saline solution of 117 percent of the target value of 0.9 g/L. The second bag had an inadequate amount of salt premeasured into the mixing bag resulting in a slightly deficient salt concentration of 93.8 percent of the target value. The USP permits a range from 95 to 105 percent of the target value. The testing plans for improvements for an operational system are also presented.

McQuillen, John B.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Synthesis of Platinum Nanoparticles Supported on Fused Nanosized Carbon Spheres Derived from Sustainable Source for Application in a Hydrogen Generation Reaction

The dwindling supply of fossil fuels has prompted the search for an alternative energy source that could effectively replace them. Potential renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, and geothermal are all promising but each has its own drawbacks. Hydrogen gas on the other hand can be combusted to produce energy with only water as a byproduct and can be steadily generated via the aqueous media hydrolysis reaction of Sodium Borohydride (NaBH 4 ). This study successfully synthesized fused carbon spheres derived from sugar and decorated them with platinum nanoparticles to form a novel composite material (PtFCS) for catalyzing this reaction. The platinum nanoparticles were produced by reducing chloroplatinic acid in a solution with sodium borohydride and using sodium citrate as a capping agent for the nanoparticles. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to characterize and determine the size and shape of the Pt nanoparticles (PtNPs) and fused carbon spheres. TEM was able to determine the average size of the fused carbon spheres to be 200 nm and the average size for the PtNPs to be 2–3 nm. The PtFCS composite was tested for its ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of NaBH 4 under various reaction conditions including various solution pH, various temperatures, and various dosages of sodium borohydride. The catalyst was found to perform the best under acidic solution conditions (pH 6), producing hydrogen at a rate of 0.0438 mL/mg cat ·min. The catalyst was determined to have an activation energy of 53.0 kJ/mol and could be used multiple times in succession with no loss in the volume of hydrogen produced. This sugar-derived composite catalyst shows promise and could be implemented as a sustainable catalyst for the generation of hydrogen fuel.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS1987

Bolide impacts, acid rain, and biospheric traumas at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary

Two plausible projectiles are considered: an ice-rich long-period comet and a much smaller rock-metal asteroid. In the framework of a proposal addressed by Lewis et al. (1982), it is shown that, while the impact projectiles themselves do not shock-heat the atmosphere very extensively, the supersonic plume of water vapor and rock produced on impact does shock the atmosphere up to global scales and the shock is of sufficient intensity to produce abundant nitric oxide. For example, an ice-rich long-period comet with a mass of 1.25 x 10 to the 16th kg and a velocity of 65 km/s striking the earth would produce about 7 x 10 to the 40th molecules NO through shock-heating of the atmosphere by the high-velocity ejecta plume fragments. Specific attention is given to the fraction of the atmosphere shock-heated, the global circulation of the nitrogen oxides, the effects of the ejecta plume water on acid rain (AR) predictions, the effects of AR on continental soils, the relationship between AR production rates and the total amount of acid needed to acidify the surface oceans, and the longevity of the oceanic acidity event and the exhaled CO2 event and their implications for the environment in the first millenia or so after the impact.

Prinn, Ronald G.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Improving Discovery, Sharing, and Use of Water Data: Initial Findings and Suggested Future Work

Collaborative management of water resources requires a broad suite of “water data” that extends beyond basic information about water quantity and quality to other related topics such as water infrastructure, aquatic ecosystem health, socioeconomic factors, and power generation. Water data are disparate in nature because they are collected and provided by many entities, and in some cases, remain challenging to access and use. The U.S. Department of Energy’s Water Power Technologies Office initiated a project to characterize relevant categories of water data; describe the current state of accessing, using, and visualizing water data; and outline investigatory pathways for future efforts aimed at improving the discovery, sharing, and use of water data. Input on these topics was solicited from a small but diverse cross section of members of the water resources community. Fourteen broad categories of water data were identified: dams; ecology; flood control; hydroclimatology; hydrography; hydrology; hydropower; management landscape; migratory barriers; recreation and aesthetic importance; socioeconomic; water quality; water availability and use; and weather. Stakeholder perspectives on the accessibility and usability of water data indicate these aspects are affected by a complex set of technical and social factors. However, stakeholders generally agreed that better access to water data can provide a range of benefits to water management, and they stressed the need to generate broad support from water data users and producers. Two investigatory pathways were outlined that, taken together, provide a logical progression toward the goals of the project. The first pathway emphasizes further investigation to better define target audiences and data needs, identify opportunities for collaboration between related efforts, and conduct value demonstration activities to generate further support for improving discovery and access of water data. The second pathway focuses on creating a comprehensive vision for potential solutions that improve the discovery of water data. Several activities that align with the first pathway are suggested for the next phase of the project.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗