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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 919 records · Page 51
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Quantifying Bulk and Surface Recombination in CdTe Solar Cells Using Time-Resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy

Understanding the nature of recombination mechanisms is essential for higher power conversion efficiency in photovoltaic (PV) devices. Here we use a combination of time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy and numerical modeling to determine the bulk Shockley-Read-Hall lifetime and interface and back surface recombination velocities in CdTe thin film stacks. Furthermore, the measurement was facilitated by fabricating wire-grid device structures using conventional laser scribing. Evaluation of a glass/FTO/SnO2/CdS/CdTe stack treated with CdCl2 allowed separation of the CdTe absorber bulk lifetime, 1.6 ns, from the back surface recombination velocity, ~6x10 4 cm/s, and indicated that CdTe/CdS interface recombination velocity had no significant impact on carrier dynamics.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Evaluation of a Robust, In-Situ Surface Treatment for Pipeline Solids Deposition Mitigation in Flowing Systems

Abstract The formation/precipitation and deposition of pipeline solids, such as gas hydrates, asphaltenes, and waxes have long plagued production fields. Given the vast differences in chemistries of these solids, any current prevention or mitigation strategy, particularly for cases where multiple issues are a concern, is likely to involve an extensive assortment of undefined chemical additives that are both costly and add complexity to the system. Surface treatments (coatings), on the other hand, present a relatively new viable option for management strategies. A chemically and physically robust surface treatment with the ability to address deposition issues for multiple pipeline solids could not only decrease the operating expenditures for a field through material cost savings and obviation of downstream separation, but could also simplify produced fluids by eliminating additional chemicals from the mixture. The purpose of this study is to explore the feasibility of a particular surface treatment as part of a solids management strategy. This work utilizes an omniphobic surface treatment to probe its effects on gas hydrate, asphaltene, and wax deposition. Specifically, high pressure rocking cells are employed to study gas hydrate nucleation and deposition. A bench-scale flowloop filled with crude oil and heptane is used to quantify the deposition of crude oil and asphaltenes after a set time period. Lastly, a mechanical shear device measures the adhesion force of wax deposits on untreated/treated surfaces. The gas hydrate rocking cell tests demonstrate an increase in induction time and occasional elimination of hydrate nucleation with the surface treatment. Moreover, the same apparatus indicates that the critical shear to avoid hydrate deposition may be lowered in the presence of the surface treatment compared to untreated pristine carbon steel coupons. A custom-built asphaltene flowloop then establishes that this surface treatment is effective in dramatically reducing the deposition of the aliphatic components of a crude oil, with a moderate reduction in the asphaltene fraction. Finally, mechanical adhesion force measurements for solidified paraffin wax display trends in agreement with the asphaltene results. The surface treatment on both pristine and corroded surfaces is able to reduce the adhesion of wax deposits to values below a pristine, untreated surface.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Monitoring the propagation of mechanical discontinuity using data-driven causal discovery and supervised learning

Mechanical wave transmission through a material is influenced by the mechanical discontinuity in the material. The propagation of embedded discontinuities can be monitored by analyzing the wave-transmission measurements recorded by a multipoint sensor system placed on the surface of the material. The proposed workflow monitors the propagation of mechanical discontinuity through three stages, namely initial, intermediate, and final stages, by using supervised learning followed by data-driven causal discovery. To the end, the workflow processes the multipoint waveform measurements resulting from a single impulse source, while considering the effects of wave attenuation, dispersion and multiple wave-propagation modes due to the discontinuity and material boundaries. Among various feature reduction techniques ranging from decomposition methods to manifold approximation methods, the features derived based on statistical parameterizations of the measured waveforms lead to reliable monitoring that is robust to changes in precision, resolution, and signal-to-noise ratio of the multipoint sensor measurements. The numbers of zero-crossing, negative-turning, and positive turning in the waveforms are the strongest causal signatures of the propagation of mechanical discontinuity. Higher order moments of the waveforms, such as variance, skewness and kurtosis, are also strong causal signatures of the propagation. Finally, the newly discovered causal signatures confirm that the statistical correlations and conventional feature rankings are not always statistically significant indicators of causality.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

CH 4 combustion over a commercial Pd/CeO 2 -ZrO 2 three-way catalyst: Impact of thermal aging and sulfur exposure

Thermal aging and sulfur poisoning are major problems influencing the efficiency and lifetime of natural gas three-way catalysts (TWCs) during real-world operation. In the present study, thermal aging and sulfur-induced deactivations on CH 4 combustion were investigated over commercial monolithic honeycombs, i.e., Pd/CexZr 1-x O 2 (CZ)-based TWCs that are thermally aged in the bench (HTA), followed by being operated behind the stoichiometric natural gas engine in high sulfur fuel (HTA + S). In this work, both HTA and HTA + S samples show degraded performance in CH 4 combustion relative to the fresh one, which are caused by the reconstruction of Pd species induced by thermal aging and the decreased reducibility of the support. The 18 O 2 labelling experiments show that in all cases CH 4 combustion proceeds via a MvK mechanism in which lattice O (OL) plays a key role. The sulfation aging (HTA + S sample) promotes the activation of CH 4 and O 2 by forming Pd δ+ -(SO$_4^{2-}$) δ- and Ce 3+ -VO couples at the interface as compared to HTA sample. However, such a promotion effect could be compromised by the blocking effect of sulfate on the exchange of O L from the bulk to the surface and across the surface. The fundamental understanding of thermal and S deactivation mechanisms from this study could help to predict a real-world lifetime use curve of natural gas TWCs.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Microstructural, Corrosion and Mechanical Characterization of Friction-Stir Welded Joints Between Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) of Aluminum-Magnesium (Al-Mg) alloys has garnered increasing attention due to its wide-ranging applications in the automotive and aerospace industries. The microstructural, corrosion, and mechanical properties of FSW Al-Mg welds under selected conditions are critical factors that must be well-investigated to ensure their durability and performance. In this study, electrochemical tests, including Open Circuit Potential (OCP), Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR), Potentiodynamic Polarization Scan (PD), and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), have been used to analyze the corrosion resistance of these welds, along with weight loss measurements through cyclic corrosion testing (CCT) and surface evolution via SEM over an 8-week period. Mechanical properties are evaluated through microindentation, nanoindentation, fatigue, and lap-shear tests. The results of the electrochemical tests reveal that the corrosion properties of the center weld zone differ from those of the two base alloys. Indentation tests indicate that the weld zone behaves differently from the base alloys. Surprisingly, the lap shear strength did not decrease significantly even after 8 weeks of cyclic corrosion testing, indicating that the joint prevented any ingress of the electrolyte. Fatigue testing showed that applying an adhesive between the Al and Mg joint improved the fatigue life to some extent, although the corrosion resistance reduced due to the discontinuous bonding of the adhesive layer. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of investigating the corrosion and mechanical properties of FSW Al-Mg welds and provide valuable insights for future modeling works.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2022

Self‐Assembly and Oriented Growth of Conductive Ni‐CAT‐1 Metal‐Organic Framework at Solid–Liquid Interfaces

Abstract Two‐dimensional (2D) conductive metal‐organic frameworks (MOF) represent a unique class of electrode materials with high capacity and power density. Understanding molecular mechanisms and pathways for heterogeneous nucleation of 2D π‐conjugated MOFs is highly desirable for controlling the structure and properties of conductive MOFs on solid substrates. Herein, a systematic study of nucleation and growth of 2D π‐conjugated Ni‐catecholate (Ni‐CAT‐1) MOFs on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and copper substrates is reported. It is discovered that the nucleation density and growth kinetics of the MOF film can be controlled by varying substrate interactions with the organic linker. Specifically, π–π interactions between the linker and the HOPG dictate lower nucleation density, whereas π–metal interactions between the linker and the copper substrate dictate faster nucleation and higher nucleation densities. These studies reveal the key mechanism for Ni‐CAT‐1 nucleation on different surfaces and provide insights into interfacial control over the growth of other 2D π‐conjugated MOF films on solid substrates to inform synthesis of functional materials.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2025

Multiscale Characterization of Additive Manufacturing Components with Computed Tomography, 3D X-ray Microscopy, and Deep Learning

Additive manufacturing (AM) facilitates the creation of complex-geometry parts, driving advancements in lightweight aerospace components, high-efficiency engine cooling channels, and customized medical implants. However, ensuring the quality and reliability of AM parts remains challenging due to internal defects, surface irregularities, porosity, and residual trapped powder, which are often inaccessible to traditional inspection methods. Recent developments in X-ray computed tomography (XCT) and 3D X-ray microscopy (XRM), particularly systems equipped with resolution-at-a-distance (RaaD™) capabilities, enable high-resolution, non-destructive evaluation of AM components across multiple scales, from sub-micrometer to macroscopic levels. This paper explores modern XCT and XRM techniques for multiscale characterization of AM parts, focusing on their ability to detect and analyze defects such as porosity, cracks, inclusions, and surface roughness, while offering insights into defect formation mechanisms, material properties, and process-induced variations. The integration of deep learning (DL) frameworks, including Simurgh, DeepRecon, and DeepScout, enhances XCT/XRM workflows by reducing scan times, improving resolution recovery, and enabling accurate defect detection even with limited projection data. These DL-based methods overcome limitations of traditional reconstruction techniques, enabling faster, more reliable characterization of dense materials like Inconel 718 and novel alloys such as AlCe. Applications include process parameter optimization, high-throughput quality control, and multistage AM process evaluation, with DL-enhanced workflows accelerating analysis times from weeks to days. Correlative imaging approaches further validate XCT and XRM data against scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of physically sectioned samples, confirming the accuracy of DL-based reconstructions and enabling comprehensive defect analysis. While challenges remain in generalizing DL models to diverse materials and imaging conditions, improvements in resolution, noise reduction, and defect detection highlight the transformative potential of these methods. This multiscale and correlative approach enables precise identification and correlation of microstructural features with the overall performance of AM components. By integrating advanced XCT, XRM, and DL techniques, this paper demonstrates a significant leap forward in AM characterization, offering valuable insights into the relationships between processing parameters, microstructure, and part performance, and driving innovations that enhance the quality and reliability of AM products for demanding industrial applications.

Additive manufacturing↗
DOE OSTI2020

Topographic Controls on the Distribution of Summer Monsoon Precipitation over South Asia

In this work, we use a high-resolution (9 km) one-way nested regional climate modeling framework to systematically evaluate individual and aggregate roles of various components of topography in the precipitation distribution during South Asian Summer Monsoon (SASM). While it is not the arrival but the north-northwestward extent of summer monsoon precipitation that is regulated by the presence of elevated surfaces in South Asia, both the thermal and mechanical topographic forcing play a role. Topography not only provides mechanical uplifting and prevents dry air entrainment, it also helps regulate the strength of upper level anticyclone and tropical easterly jet, all of which are necessary to sustain a conducive environment for monsoon precipitation in the South Asian summer. In turn, precipitation feedbacks positively by accelerating the tropospheric diabatic warming through atmospheric latent heating and by maintaining the moisture supply through local recycling. Modifications in the topography, particularly the removal of the Tibetan Plateau, substantially modulates the moist flow in the lower troposphere and the anticyclonic circulation in the upper troposphere to an extent that the northern branch of SASM becomes substantially weaker. These changes give way to negative precipitation anomalies and eventually to an environment where the cycle of feedbacks that runs the process of monsoon progression over land becomes inefficient. The design of topographic modification experiments can influence precipitation response; therefore, we advise caution in the interpretation of these and previously reported results.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Facet-dependent strong metal-support interactions control the C–O bond activation

Reducible metal oxides are selective and effective for C–O bond scission of hydrodeoxygenation reactions via the reverse Mars-van Krevelen mechanism. Creating efficient redox centers while minimizing metal surfaces leads to highly selective catalysts. Single noble metal atoms activate the surface M–O bond, but the catalyst activity is limited due to low loading. Here, we report that the strong metal-support interaction between Ir and CeO 2 is facet sensitive, and certain facets regulate the C–O bond cleavage. At 300°C reduction, Ir is mostly encapsulated on an octahedron by (111) facets but remains exposed by (110) facets. The former is selective, whereas the latter is not. In conclusion, density functional theory indicates that Ir encapsulation is favored on (111) under reaction conditions, and oxygen vacancies more readily form on encapsulated Ir than on pristine ceria.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Polyolefin melt-phase effects on alkane hydrogenolysis over Pt catalysts

Supported transition metal catalyzed, chemical upcycling of polyolefins by hydrogenolysis typically occurs in a polymer melt phase at elevated temperatures (T > 200 ºC). Currently, the impact of the melt phase on the catalytic activity and selectivity of the transition metal is largely unknown. Herein, we use a hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) approach to investigate the melt-phase effects on the adsorption free energy (∆∆G$^{gas→liq}_{Adsorbate}$) of atomic hydrogen, 12 hydrocarbon molecules, and 4 transition states in the hydrogenolysis mechanism of butane on a Pt(111) catalyst surface at 573 K in the presence of a polyethylene surrogate melt consisting of C 36 H 74 chains. The smallest and largest endergonic melt phase effects, (∆∆G$^{gas→liq}_{Adsorbate}$), belong to hydrogen (0.045 eV) and butane (1.357 eV). Altogether, we find melt-phase effects are significant and change the activity of transition metal catalysts. Beyond an overall reduced adsorption strength, elementary surface reactions are also affected by the melt phase.

Pt catalysis↗
DOE OSTI2021

In-operando surface-sensitive probing of electrochemical reactions on nanoparticle electrocatalysts: Spectroscopic characterization of reaction intermediates and elementary steps of oxygen reduction reaction on Pt

In this paper we present an in-operando spectroscopic study of the reaction intermediates involved in ORR on electrified Pt nanoparticle electrocatalysts. To accomplish this, we have synthesized Ag-Pt core–shell nanoparticles, that contain a thin shell of Pt (~1 nm) uniformly deposited on a larger Ag core (~60 nm). We show that these nanostructures are ideal platforms for in-operando Plasmon Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (PERS) of ORR on Pt. We combined these PERS studies with DFT calculations to assign the measured vibrational spectra to relevant surface intermediates as a function of electrocatalyst potential. Overall, these vibrational assignments were further verified and validated by performing PERS measurements using de-oxygenated and heavy oxygen (O 2 -18) saturated electrolyte. These studies allowed us to identity the presence of critical reaction intermediates (OH, O 2 , OOH, and H 2 O) as the function of operating voltage on the Pt surface and derive voltage-dependent elementary step mechanisms of the reaction.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Theoretical Study of the Phenoxy Radical Recombination with the O( 3 P) Atom, Phenyl plus Molecular Oxygen Revisited

Quantum chemical calculations of the C 6 H 5 O 2 potential energy surface (PES) were carried out to study the mechanism of the phenoxy + O( 3 P) and phenyl + O 2 reactions. CASPT2(15e,13o)/CBS//CASSCF(15e,13o)/DZP multi-reference calculations were utilized to map out the minimum energy path for the entrance channels of the phenoxy + O( 3 P) reaction. Stationary points on the C 6 H 5 O 2 PES were explored at the CCSD(T)-F12/cc-pVTZ-f12//B3LYP/6-311++G** level for the species with a single-reference character of the wave function and at the CASPT2(15e,13o)/CBS//B3LYP/6-311++G** level of theory for the species with a multi-reference character of the wave function. Conventional, variational, and variable reaction coordinate transition state theories were employed in Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus Master Equation calculations to assess temperature- and pressure-dependent phenomenological rate constants and product branching ratios. Here, the main bimolecular product channels of the phenoxy + O( 3 P) reaction are concluded to be para/ortho-benzoquinone + H, 2,4-cyclopentadienone + HCO, and, at high temperatures, also phenyl + O 2 . The main bimolecular product channels of the phenyl + O 2 reaction include 2,4-cyclopentadienone + HCO at lower temperatures, and phenoxy + O( 3 P) at higher temperatures. Both for the phenoxy + O( 3 P) and phenyl + O 2 reactions, the collisional stabilization of peroxybenzene at low temperatures and high pressures competes with the bimolecular product channels.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Understanding the Effect of Curvature on the Magnetization Reversal of Three-Dimensional Nanohelices

Comprehending the interaction between geometry and magnetism in three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures is important to understand the fundamental physics of domain wall (DW) formation and pinning. Here, we use focused-electron-beam-induced deposition to fabricate magnetic nanohelices with increasing helical curvature with height. Using electron tomography and Lorentz transmission electron microscopy, we reconstruct the 3D structure and magnetization of the nanohelices. The surface curvature, helical curvature, and torsion of the nanohelices are then quantified from the tomographic reconstructions. Furthermore, by using the experimental 3D reconstructions as inputs for micromagnetic simulations, we can reveal the influence of surface and helical curvature on the magnetic reversal mechanism. Hence, we can directly correlate the magnetic behavior of a 3D nanohelix to its experimental structure. In conclusion, these results demonstrate how the control of geometry in nanohelices can be utilized in the stabilization of DWs and control of the response of the nanostructure to applied magnetic fields.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Flux-Closure Domain Structures in Ferroelectric K 0.5 Na 0.5 NbO 3 Thin Films

Topological domain structures in ferroelectric materials have garnered increasing attention due to their intriguing physical properties and promising applications. While most existing topological structures in ferroelectric perovskite oxides originate from tetragonal or rhombohedral bulk phases, much less is understood about their counterparts in orthorhombic ferroelectrics. Here, in this work, we employ ferroelectric K 0.5 Na 0.5 NbO 3 (KNN) thin films as a model system and leverage phase-field simulations to theoretically predict the static structures and dynamic behaviors of three types of flux-closure domain configurations: in-plane (Type-I), out-of-plane (Type-II), and superdomain (Type-III) flux-closure structures. We systematically investigate the effects of finite size, misfit strains, and electrical boundary conditions on the formation and switching of these topological structures. For the Type-I structure, size reduction or small misfit strain facilitates a transition of the flux-closure pattern to polar vortices. Type-II structures emerge under open-circuit electrical boundary conditions of the film, forming at the junctions of specific domain walls with the film surface or the film–substrate interface. The formation mechanisms of these two flux-closure structures are rationalized from an energy perspective. We demonstrated switching capabilities of Type-II and Type-III structures by obtaining polarization–electric field hysteresis loops. Our simulations also reveal a reversible electric-field-induced transition between the orthorhombic and rhombohedral ferroelectric phases with a checkerboard domain pattern, during which the integrity of the flux-closure structure is preserved. These findings provide theoretical insights and practical guidance for identifying and manipulating topological structures in low-symmetry ferroelectrics, paving the way for developing energy-efficient microelectronic devices based on topological structures.

P-E loop↗
DOE OSTI2021

Structure and Oxygen Evolution Activity of β-NiOOH: Where Are the Protons?

Ni oxides and oxyhydroxides (NiO x ) have been studied for a long time as cathode materials for alkaline batteries and electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Yet, understanding of the connection between their atomic and electronic structures and electrochemical performance or stability is still incomplete. In this work, we use first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations to revisit the structure, electronic properties, and OER activity of β-NiOOH, the catalytically active phase of NiO x . Following extensive DFTbased screening, we identify a hitherto overlooked structure characterized by a uniform distribution of H atoms on the NiO 2 layers. All the Ni 3+ cations in this structure exhibit an identical t g 6 e g 1 electronic configuration with an occupied 3d z2 orbital. Comparison of the calculated bond lengths with extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data unequivocally supports this structure relative to all other low-energy configurations. Based on this structure, we uncover and detail defect-dominated OER mechanisms on the basal β-NiOOH (001) surface, with overpotentials as low as 0.39 V. The present results should provide a valuable contribution to ongoing efforts for understanding and developing enhanced transition-metal hydroxide catalysts for the OER.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Microscopic Observation of Solid Electrolyte Interphase Bilayer Inversion on Silicon Oxide

Silicon has been investigated in recent years as an alloying anode material to enhance gravimetric energy density in lithium-ion batteries. Although recent developments have suggested that silicon oxides exhibit improved cycling stability over pure Si, the origin of the improved cycling performance is still poorly understood. The initial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation mechanisms on Si wafers with both native oxide and chemically etched thermal oxide coatings are investigated structurally, chemically, and morphologically in the nanoscale. After one electrochemical cycle, microscopy reveals that SEI formed on native SiO x features the typical SEI bilayer structure with a carbon-rich outer SEI layer and an inorganic-rich inner SEI layer. In contrast, the SEI formed on chemically etched thermal oxide shows an inversion in the structure. This work observes distinct initial SEI formation mechanisms on the HF-etched SiO 2 surface, which may be partially responsible for improved cycle life observed in SiO x -based anode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Understanding the Mechanism of High Capacitance in Nickel Hexaaminobenzene-Based Conductive Metal-Organic Frameworks in Aqueous Electrolytes

Recently, intrinsically conductive metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have demonstrated promising performance in fast-charging energy storage applications and may outperform some current electrode materials (e.g., porous carbons) for supercapacitors in terms of both gravimetric and volumetric capacitance. In this report, we examine the mechanism of high capacitance in a nickel hexaaminobenzene-based MOF (NiHAB). Using a combination of in situ Raman and X-Ray absorption spectroscopies, as well as detailed electrochemical studies in a series of aqueous electrolytes, we demonstrate in this work that the charge storage mechanism is in fact a pH-dependent surface pseudocapacitance, and, unlike typical inorganic systems, where transition metals change oxidation state during charge/discharge cycles, NiHAB redox activity is ligand-centered.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of Ice Number Concentration on the Evolution of Boundary Layer Clouds During Arctic Marine Cold‐Air Outbreaks

Abstract Marine cold‐air outbreaks (MCAOs) are crucial for Arctic Ocean heat loss, featuring convective cloud rolls that transition into convection cells downstream. Understanding factors controlling this transformation is the key for improving MCAO cloud representation in climate models. This study employs large‐eddy simulations to investigate how cloud ice number concentrations () affect cloud evolution using a case from the Cold‐Air Outbreaks in the Marine Boundary Layer Experiment (COMBLE) campaign. The simulations, performed in a Lagrangian framework following an air mass trajectory, are driven by ERA5 reanalysis data. Initially, all simulations produce similar cloud patterns, but higher leads to earlier breakup of cloud rolls. Between 4 and 10 hr, surface precipitation rates are similar across simulations, but precipitation initiates earlier, and the cloud‐base precipitation rates are higher when is higher. The stronger precipitation evaporation leads to increased stability of the boundary layer and reduced intensity of vertical mixing between the surface and cloud layer. An increased sink of cloud layer moisture via precipitation and decreased source through diminished vertical transport result in earlier cloud breakup in higher conditions. Simulations with different sea surface temperatures (SST) indicate that this cloud breakup mechanism remains valid for MCAOs of different strengths, although the cloud organization is more sensitive to SST changes in low environments. This work highlights the importance of accurate representations of ice processes in simulating MCAO clouds and suggests the need for observational constraints of ice nucleating particles and over the mixed‐phase cloud regimes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗