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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2003

The Chemical Composition and Gas-to-Dust Mass Ratio of Nearby Interstellar Matter

We use recent results on interstellar gas toward nearby stars and interstellar by-products within the solar system to select among the equilibrium radiative transfer models of the nearest interstellar material presented in Slavin & Frisch. For the assumption that O/H - 400 parts per million, models 2 and 8 are found to yield good fits to available data on interstellar material inside and outside of the heliosphere, with the exception of the Ne abundance in the pickup ion and anomalous cosmic-ray populations. For these models, the interstellar medium (ISM) at the entry point to the heliosphere has n(H(sup 0)) = 0.202-0.208/cu cm, n(He(sup 0) = 0.0137-0.0152/cu cm, and ionizations X(H) = 0.29-0.30, X(He) = 0.47-0.51. These best models suggest that the chemical composition of the nearby ISM is approx.60%-70% subsolar if S is undepleted. Both H(0) and H(+) need to be included when evaluating abundances of ions found in warm diffuse clouds. Models 2 and 8 yield an H filtration factor of approx.0.46. Gas-to-dust mass ratios for the ISM toward epsilon CMa are R(sub gd) = 178-183 for solar abundances of Holweger or R(sub gd) = 611-657 for an interstellar abundance standard 70% solar. Direct observations of dust grains in the solar system by Ulysses and Galileo yield R(sub gd) appr0x. 115 for models 2 and 8, supporting earlier results (Frisch and coworkers). If the local ISM abundances are subsolar, then gas and dust are decoupled over small spatial scales. The inferred variation in R(sub gd) over parsec length scales is consistent with the fact that the ISM near the Sun is part of a dynamically active cluster of cloudlets flowing away from the Sco-Cen association. Observations toward stars within approx.500 pc show that R(sub gd) correlates with the percentage of the dust mass that is carried by iron, suggesting that an Fe-rich grain core (by mass) remains after grain destruction. Evidently large dust grains (>10(exp -13) g) and small dust grains (<10(exp -13) g) are not well mixed over parsec length spatial scales in the ISM. It also appears that very small C-dominated dust grains have been destroyed in the ISM within several parsecs of the Sun, since C appears to be essentially undepleted. However, if gas-dust coupling breaks down over the cloud lifetime, the missing mass arguments applied here to determine R(sub gd) and dust grain mineralogy are not appropriate.

Frisch, Priscilla C.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Model for Ice Accretion Roughness Evolution and Spatial Variations

Over the past decade, multiple investigations of ice accretion roughness and spatial variations have been performed in the Icing Research Tunnel (IRT) at the NASA Glenn Research Center. The early investigations used models of NACA 0012 airfoils with different chord sizes and focused on temporal scaling and primary cloud scaling parameters such as stagnation point collection efficiency. Subsequent investigations included the effects of model sweep, airfoil shape, airfoil lifting condition, and freestream static temperature. To develop a predictive model for roughness evolution in generalized icing situations, the maximum roughness values for the airfoils and conditions used in the angle of attack and freestream temperature investigations were scaled to eliminate the temporal variations. LEWICE simulations were employed to identify the local collection efficiency at the locations of maximum roughness, and a two-dimensional panel-method code was used to identify the local static pressure at the location of the maximum roughness. Because of the stochastic nature of ice accretion roughness, a physics-directed approach was employed to develop a multi-dimensional correlation based on the local pressure coefficient, the local total temperature, the cloud properties, and the cloud exposure time. The resulting correlation predictions are compared to ice shapes measured in the IRT for both a 21-in. NACA 0012 airfoil model and a 60-in. HAARP-II model. The resulting predictions indicate that the local freezing fraction must be included in the roughness predictive model. Implications regarding icing heat transfer predictions using the resulting roughness model are also discussed.

Icing↗
NASA NTRS2004

DNA fragmentation induced by Fe ions in human cells: shielding influence on spatially correlated damage

Outside the magnetic field of the Earth, high energy heavy ions constitute a relevant part of the biologically significant dose to astronauts during the very long travels through space. The typical pattern of energy deposition in the matter by heavy ions on the microscopic scale is believed to produce spatially correlated damage in the DNA which is critical for radiobiological effects. We have investigated the influence of a lucite shielding on the initial production of very small DNA fragments in human fibroblasts irradiated with 1 GeV/u iron (Fe) ions. We also used gamma rays as reference radiation. Our results show: (1) a lower effect per incident ion when the shielding is used; (2) an higher DNA Double Strand Breaks (DSB) induction by Fe ions than by gamma rays in the size range 1-23 kbp; (3) a non-random DNA DSB induction by Fe ions. c2004 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

NASA Discipline Radiation Health↗
NASA NTRS2016

VLTI-AMBER Velocity-Resolved Aperture-Synthesis Imaging of Eta Carinae with a Spectral Resolution of 12 000: Studies of the Primary Star Wind and Innermost Wind-Wind Collision Zone

The mass loss from massive stars is not understood well. Eta Carinae is a unique object for studying the massive stellar wind during the luminous blue variable phase. It is also an eccentric binary with a period of 5.54 yr. The nature of both stars is uncertain, although we know from X-ray studies that there is a wind-wind collision whose properties change with orbital phase. Aims. We want to investigate the structure and kinematics of Car's primary star wind and wind-wind collision zone with a high spatial resolution of approx.6 mas (approx.14 au) and high spectral resolution of R = 12 000. Methods. Observations of Car were carried out with the ESO Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) and the AMBER instrument between approximately five and seven months before the August 2014 periastron passage. Velocity-resolved aperture-synthesis images were reconstructed from the spectrally dispersed interferograms. Interferometric studies can provide information on the binary orbit, the primary wind, and the wind collision. Results. We present velocity-resolved aperture-synthesis images reconstructed in more than 100 di erent spectral channels distributed across the Br(gamma) 2.166 micron emission line. The intensity distribution of the images strongly depends on wavelength. At wavelengths corresponding to radial velocities of approximately -140 to -376 km/s measured relative to line center, the intensity distribution has a fan-shaped structure. At the velocity of -277 km/s, the position angle of the symmetry axis of the fan is 126. The fan-shaped structure extends approximately 8.0 mas (approx.18:8 au) to the southeast and 5.8 mas (approx.13:6 au) to the northwest, measured along the symmetry axis at the 16% intensity contour. The shape of the intensity distributions suggests that the obtained images are the first direct images of the innermost wind-wind collision zone. Therefore, the observations provide velocity-dependent image structures that can be used to test three-dimensional hydrodynamical, radiative transfer models of the massive interacting winds of Eta Car.

Velocity-resolved aperture-synthesis images↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Latest Development in Radiative Transfer Models and Retrieval Algorithms Using Principal Components

The radiative transfer model (RTMs) has a wide range of applications in satellite remote sensing and atmospheric radiation applications. However, millions of line-by-line (LBL) radiative transfer calculations at fine monochromatic frequencies are needed in order to properly calculate spectral contributions of water vapor and trace gases in the atmosphere in infrared and solar spectral regions. Therefore, fast and accurate RTMs are needed to efficiently process large amount of satellite data. A Principal Component-based Radiative Transfer Model (PCRTM) was first developed in 2004 at NASA Langley Research Centre to fulfil this need. By using PC-compression, one can reduce the data dimension significantly while maintaining original information content. The PCRTM can directly compute PC-scores and their derivatives with respect to retrieved parameters. The PCRTM can simulate the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance or reflectance spectra from 0.250 µm (400000 cm-1) to 2000 µm (50 cm-1) with several orders of magnitude faster speed as compared to a LBL RTM. It is also extremely accurate compared to LBL RTM benchmarks (0.03 K RMS error in IR and 0.05% in solar). The PCRTM model has been developed for hyperspectral sensors such as AIRS, CrIS, IASI, NAST-I, SHIS, FIRST, and CLARREO-IR in thermal IR spectral region and CLARREO-Solar, CPF, TEMPO, EMIT, OMI, and SCIAMACHY in solar spectral region. The PCRTM accuracy has been demonstrated via RTM intercomparisons and with real satellite observations from AIRS, CrIS, IASI, SCHIAMACHY, and EMIT etc. In this presentation, we will describe two PCRTM-based inversion algorithms to retrieve atmospheric temperature, water vapor, and trace gas profiles, as well as cloud and surface properties from hyperspectral sounders such as AIRS, CrIS, IASI, and NAST-I. The first one is called Single Fieldof-view Sounder Atmospheric Product (SiFSAP) algorithm. It provides L2 products with 9-times higher area spatial resolution as compared to current cloud-clearing sounder algorithms. The SiFSAP L2 and L3 products are available at NASA's Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) for public access. The second inversion algorithm is called Climate Fingerprinting Atmospheric Product (ClimFiSP) algorithm. It is designed to produce high quality climate products (trends, anomalies, daily, and monthly profiles of temperature, water vapor, traces, clouds, and surface properties) from multiple satellite sensors such AIRS on Aqua and CrIS on multiple satellites. This product will be available at NASA GES DISC later this year. The PCRTMbased high fidelity simulators for CLARREO and CPF have been used for sensor performance trade studies, algorithm development, and inter-satellite calibrations. We have also used PCRTM generated TOA radiance spectra to train an AI-based algorithm and successfully retrieved cloud properties from EMIT solar hyperspectral imagers.

PCRTM↗
NASA NTRS1992

Microbeam studies of the sensitivity of structures within living cells

Determining the biological effects of low doses of radiation with high linear energy transfer (LET) is complicated by the stochastic nature of charged-particle interactions. Populations of cells exposed to very low radiation doses contain a few cells which have been hit by a charged particle, while the majority of the cells receive no radiation damage. At somewhat higher doses, a few cells receive two or more events. Because the effects of damage produced by separate events can interact in the cell, we have had to make assumptions about the nature of these interactions in order to interpret the results of the experiments. Many of those assumptions can be tested if we can be sure of the number of charged-particle events which occur in individual cells, and correlate this number with the biological effect. We have developed a special irradiation facility at Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) to control the actual number of charged particle tracks that pass through cell nuclei. The beam from a 2 MeV tandem accelerator is collimated to approximately 5 microns. Cells, grown in special dishes with 1.5 microns thick plastic bottoms, are positioned so that the desired portion of the cell aligns with the collimator. A shutter in the beam line is opened and closed after the desired number of particle tracks has been counted. This approach can be used to investigate the effects of the interaction between irradiated and unirradiated cells in an organized system, as well as to study the effects of spatial and temporal distribution of radiation damage within single cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS).

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2000

Phase Shift Interferometer and Growth Set Up to Step Pattern Formation During Growth From Solutions. Influence of the Oscillatory solution Flow on Stability

We have assembled an experimental setup based on Michelson interferometry with the growing crystal surface as one of the reflective surfaces. The crystallization part of the device allows optical monitoring of a face of a crystal growing at temperature stable within 0.05 C in a flow of solution of controlled direction and speed. The reference arm of the interferometer contains a liquid crystal element that allows controlled shifts of the phase of the interferograms. We employ an image-processing algorithm, which combines five images with a pi/2 phase difference between each pair of images. The images are transferred to a computer by a camera capable of capturing 60 frames per second. The device allows data collection on surface morphology and kinetics during the face layers growth over a relatively large area (approximately 4 sq. mm) in situ and in real time during growth. The estimated depth resolution of the phase shifting interferometry is approximately 50 Angstroms. The data will be analyzed in order to reveal and monitor step bunching during the growth process. The crystal chosen as a model for study in this work is KH2PO4 (KDP). This optically non-linear material is widely used in frequency doubling applications. There have been a number of studies of the kinetics of KDP crystallization that can serve as a benchmark for our investigations. However, so far, systematic quantitative characteristics of step interaction and bunching are missing. We intend to present our first quantitative results on the onset, initial stages and development of instabilities in moving step trains on vicinal crystal surfaces at varying supersaturation, flow rate, and flow direction. Behavior of a vicinal face growing from solution flowing normal to the steps and periodically changing its direction in time was considered theoretically. It was found that this oscillating flow reduces both stabilization and destabilization effects resulted from the unidirectional solution flow directed up the step stream and down the step stream. This reduction of stabilization and destabilization comes from effective mixing which entangles the phase shifts between the spatially periodic interface perturbation and the concentration wave induced by this perturbation. Numerical results and simplified mixing criterion will be discussed.

Chernov, Alex A.↗
NASA NTRS2023

Interrogating Solar Flare Loop Models with IRIS Observations 2: Plasma Properties, Energy Transport, and Future Directions

During solar flares a tremendous amount of magnetic energy is released and transported through the Sun’s atmosphere and out into the heliosphere. Despite over a century of study, many unresolved questions surrounding solar flares are still present. Among those are how does the solar plasma respond to flare energy deposition, and what are the important physical processes that transport that energy from the release site in the corona through the transition region and chromosphere? Attacking these questions requires the concert of advanced numerical simulations and high spatial-, temporal-, and spectral-resolution observations. While flares are 3D phenomenon, simulating the NLTE flaring chromosphere in 3D and performing parameter studies of 3D models is largely outwith our current computational capabilities. We instead rely on state-of-the-art 1D field-aligned simulations to study the physical processes that govern flares. Over the last decade, data from the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) have provided the crucial observations with which we can critically interrogate the predictions of those flare loop models. Here in Paper 2 of a two-part review of IRIS and flare loop models, I discuss how forward modelling flares can help us understand the observations from IRIS, and how IRIS can reveal where our models do well and where we are likely missing important processes, focussing in particular on the plasma properties, energy transport mechanisms, and future directions of flare modelling.

solar flares↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Evaluating Diurnal Ozone Emissions: A Comparative Analysis of DSCOVR EPIC, PANDORA, and TOLNet Data for Space-Based Monitoring Assessment: A Case Study by ASDC

Stratospheric ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, forming a protective layer that shields us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Tropospheric ozone is not emitted directly into the air but is created by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). This reaction happens when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources chemically react in sunlight [1]. Therefore, increased levels of tropospheric ozone indicate the presence of pollutants in the air. While daily anthropogenic activity causes an increase of ground-level ozone, variation of stratospheric ozone changes happens much slower, so that variation of the total ozone column reflects the variation of the tropospheric column due to natural, e.g., wildfires and anthropogenic air pollution. Both total and tropospheric ozone column products are used in this study. The reflectance spectra measured by the Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera (EPIC) instrument aboard the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) spacecraft are compared with a set of radiative transfer-derived lookup tables for the EPIC filter transmission functions and a wide range of ozone values to retrieve ozone with a maximum resolution of 18 km at the sub-satellite point [2]. EPIC provides total column ozone in level 2 and level 4 products and tropospheric column ozone in level 4 products. Both EPIC Ozone products [2] are available at the Atmospheric Science Data Center (ASDC) at NASA Langley Research Center [3, 4]. Pandora spectrometer instrument measures columnar amounts of trace gases in the atmosphere. These gases (O3, NO2, CH2O) absorb light from the sun at specific wavelengths in the ultraviolet-visible spectrum [5]. Using the theoretical solar spectrum as a reference, Pandora determines trace gas amounts using differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS). Pandora ozone retrievals are available from the Pandonia Global Network [6]. Pandora data from North American major metropolitan areas, New York, NY, Washington DC, Los Angeles, CA, and Mexico City. Tropospheric Ozone Lidar Network (TOLNet) was established in 2012 to provide high spatiotemporal observations of tropospheric ozone to (1) better understand physical processes driving the ozone budget in various meteorological and environmental conditions and (2) validate the tropospheric ozone measurements of space-borne missions [7]. TOLNet data are available at ASDC [8]. While EPIC provides global coverage of ozone retrievals several times daily, temporal resolution may miss some features in daily ozone variations. Ground-based sensors such as Pandora spectrometers and TOLNet lidars provide better temporal resolution while missing continuous spatial coverage. The forthcoming ozone retrieval from the TEMPO mission [9] will provide better spatial and temporal coverage of air quality (including ozone) over North America. This study investigates whether EPIC ozone products can detect diurnal air quality variations and compare ozone temporal development with retrieval by ground-based instruments.

diurnal ozone emissions, DSCOVR EPIC, PANDORA, spa↗
NASA NTRS2009

Data Assimilation Experiments Using Quality Controlled AIRS Version 5 Temperature Soundings

The AIRS Science Team Version 5 retrieval algorithm has been finalized and is now operational at the Goddard DAAC in the processing (and reprocessing) of all AIRS data. The AIRS Science Team Version 5 retrieval algorithm contains a number of significant improvements over Version 4. Two very significant improvements are described briefly below. 1) The AIRS Science Team Radiative Transfer Algorithm (RTA) has now been upgraded to accurately account for effects of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium on the AIRS observations. This allows for use of AIRS observations in the entire 4.3 micron CO2 absorption band in the retrieval algorithm during both day and night. Following theoretical considerations, tropospheric temperature profile information is obtained almost exclusively from clear column radiances in the 4.3 micron CO2 band in the AIRS Version 5 temperature profile retrieval step. These clear column radiances are a derived product that are indicative of radiances AIRS channels would have seen if the field of view were completely clear. Clear column radiances for all channels are determined using tropospheric sounding 15 micron CO2 observations. This approach allows for the generation of accurate values of clear column radiances and T(p) under most cloud conditions. 2) Another very significant improvement in Version 5 is the ability to generate accurate case-by-case, level-by-level error estimates for the atmospheric temperature profile, as well as for channel-by-channel clear column radiances. These error estimates are used for quality control of the retrieved products. Based on error estimate thresholds, each temperature profiles is assigned a characteristic pressure, pg, down to which the profile is characterized as good for use for data assimilation purposes. We have conducted forecast impact experiments assimilating AIRS quality controlled temperature profiles using the NASA GEOS-5 data assimilation system, consisting of the NCEP GSI analysis coupled with the NASA FVGCM, at a spatial resolution of 0.5 deg by 0.5 deg. Assimilation of Quality Controlled AIRS temperature profiles down to pg resulted in significantly improved forecast skill compared to that obtained from experiments when all data used operationally by NCEP, except for AIRS data, is assimilated. These forecasts were also significantly better than to those obtained when AIRS radiances (rather than temperature profiles) are assimilated, which is the way AIRS data is used operationally by NCEP and ECMWF.

Susskind, Joel↗
NASA NTRS1992

A new method for internal calibration of nuclear track detectors

A new technique is proposed for an internal calibration of a two-layer detector assembly. Spatially coincident pairs of conical tracks on one surface and overetched tracks on the adjacent surface are selected for measurement. Both the etch rate ratio and the particle range can be obtained from the minor and major diameters of the elliptical track and the radii of the circular tracks for two etching steps. This technique was applied to CR-39 detectors exposed to fast neutrons and those flown on a high altitude balloon in order to evaluate the proton response. An improvement by using multi-step etching was also carried out. It was found that not only a single set of the etch rate ratio and the range but also the response curve could be estimated in an extended region by analyzing combined growth curves.

NASA Discipline Radiation Health↗
NASA NTRS2011

An Integrated Hydrological and Water Management Study of the Entire Nile River System - Lake Victoria to Nile Delta

The Nile basin River system spans 3 million km(exp 2) distributed over ten nations. The eight upstream riparian nations, Ethiopia, Eretria, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, Tanzania and Kenya are the source of approximately 86% of the water inputs to the Nile, while the two downstream riparian countries Sudan and Egypt, presently rely on the river's flow for most of the their needs. Both climate and agriculture contribute to the complicated nature of Nile River management: precipitation in the headwaters regions of Ethiopia and Lake Victoria is variable on a seasonal and inter-annual basis, while demand for irrigation water in the arid downstream region is consistently high. The Nile is, perhaps, one of the most difficult trans-boundary water issue in the world, and this study would be the first initiative to combine NASA satellite observations with the hydrologic models study the overall water balance in a to comprehensive manner. The cornerstone application of NASA's Earth Science Research Results under this project are the NASA Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS) and the USDA Atmosphere-land Exchange Inverse (ALEXI) model. These two complementary research results are methodologically independent methods for using NASA observations to support water resource analysis in data poor regions. Where an LDAS uses multiple sources of satellite data to inform prognostic simulations of hydrological process, ALEXI diagnoses evapotranspiration and water stress on the basis of thermal infrared satellite imagery. Specifically, this work integrates NASA Land Data Assimilation systems into the water management decision support systems that member countries of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) and Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD, located in Nairobi, Kenya) use in water resource analysis, agricultural planning, and acute drought response to support sustainable development of Nile Basin water resources. The project is motivated by the recognition that accurate, frequent, and spatially distributed estimates of the water balance are necessary for effective water management. This creates a challenge for watersheds that are large, include data poor regions, and/or span multiple nations. All of these descriptors apply to the Nile River basin, yet successful management of the Nile is critical for development and political stability in the region. For this reason, improved hydrological data to support cooperative water management in the Nile basin is a priority for USAID, the US State Department, the World Bank and other international organizations. In this project, the U.S. based research team is working with partners at RCMRD, Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), and their member national-level agencies to develop satellite-based land cover maps, satellite-derived evapotranspiration estimates (using the ALEXI algorithm), and NASA's Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS) customized to match identified information needs. The cornerstone applied sciences product of the project is the development of a customized "Nile LDAS" that will produce optimal estimates of hydrological states and fluxes, as vetted against the in situ observations of NBI and RCMRD member organizations and independent satellite-derived hydrological estimates. Nile LDAS will be applied to improve the reliability of emerging Decision Support Systems in applications that include drought monitoring, reservoir management, and irrigation planning. The end-users such as RCMRD, NBI, Ethiopian and Kenya Meteorological and Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWSNet) will be the eventual benefactors of this work. There will be a capacity building process involving the above end-user organizations and transfer the models and the results for these organizations to execute for future use. The team has already initiated this study and the early results of first years' work are shown. The plan is to complete this work by late 2013.

Habib, Shahid↗
NASA NTRS2023

Gas Sources from the Coma and Nucleus of Comet 46P/Wirtanen Observed Using ALMA

Gas-phase molecules in cometary atmospheres (comae) originate primarily from (1) outgassing by the nucleus, (2) sublimation of icy grains in the near-nucleus coma, and (3) coma (photo)chemical processes. However, the majority of cometary gases observed at radio wavelengths have yet to be mapped, so their production/release mechanisms remain uncertain. Here we present observations of six molecular species toward comet 46P/Wirtanen, obtained using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array during the comet's unusually close (∼0.1 au) approach to Earth in 2018 December. Interferometric maps of HCN, CH 3 OH, CH 3 CN, H 2 CO, CS, and HNC were obtained at an unprecedented sky-projected spatial resolution of up to 25 km, enabling the nucleus and coma sources of these molecules to be accurately quantified. The HCN, CH 3 OH, and CH 3 CN spatial distributions are consistent with production by direct outgassing from (or very close to) the nucleus, with a significant proportion of the observed CH 3 OH originating from sublimation of icy grains in the near-nucleus coma (at a scale length L p = 36 ± 7 km). On the other hand, H 2 CO, CS, and HNC originate primarily from distributed coma sources (with L p values in the range 550–16,000 km), the identities of which remain to be established. The HCN, CH 3 OH, and HNC abundances in 46P are consistent with the average values previously observed in comets, whereas the H 2 CO, CH 3 CN, and CS abundances are relatively low.

Short period comets↗
NASA NTRS2000

Satellite Mapping of the Earth's Ozone and Sulfur Dioxide

The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instruments are spatially-scanning UV spectrometers that have produced daily global images of total ozone over the last 21 years since the launch of the Nimbus 7 satellite. The instruments use a total ozone retrieval algorithm pioneered by J.V. Dave and C. L. Mateer for the Nimbus 4 Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) instrument, designed by D.F. Heath. The TOMS ozone maps have revealed the relations between total ozone and atmospheric dynamics, and shown the dramatic losses of ozone in the Antarctic ozone hole and the Northern hemisphere. The accepted long-term trends in global, regional, and local ozone are derived from data from the Nimbus 7 TOMS and three successive TOMS flights on Russian, Japanese, and American satellites. The next TOMS flight will be launched in 2000. The contiguous mapping design and fortuitous choice of TOMS wavelengths bands also permitted imaging of a second atmospheric gas, sulfur dioxide, which is transient due to its short lifetime. The importance of this measurement was first realized after the eruption of El Chichon volcano in 1982. The extreme range of sizes of volcanic eruptions and the 'associated danger require observations from a distant observing platform. The first quantitative time series of the input of sulfur dioxide by explosive volcanic eruptions into the atmosphere thus was developed from the TOMS missions. Finally, the Rayleigh and aerosol scattering spectral characteristic and reflectivity complete the four dominant pieces of information in the near UV albedo of the Earth. The four parameters are derived with a linear algorithm, the absorption coefficients of the gases, and effective paths computed from radiative transfer tables. Absorbing aerosol clouds (smoke, dust, volcanic ash) are readily identified by their deviation from a Rayleigh signature. The greatest shortcoming of the TOMS dataset is the 24 hour time resolution that is produced by the polar orbit of the satellite. Dynamic phenomena, such as upper air fronts that modulate total ozone and volcanic eruptions of sulfur dioxide and ash, cannot be adequately resolved. It is hoped that UV observations from geostationary satellites will soon be made to test the value of this unique information in weather forecasting and aviation safety.

Krueger, Arlin↗
NASA NTRS2000

Satellite Mapping of the Earth's Ozone and Sulfur Dioxide

The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instruments are spatially-scanning UV spectrometers that have produced daily global images of total ozone over the last 21 years since the launch of the Nimbus 7 satellite. The instruments use a total ozone retrieval algorithm pioneered by J.V. Dave and C. L. Mateer for the Nimbus 4 Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) instrument, designed by D.F. Heath. The TOMS ozone maps have revealed the relations between total ozone and atmospheric dynamics, and shown the dramatic losses of ozone in the Antarctic ozone hole and the Northern hemisphere. The accepted long-term trends in global, regional, and local ozone are derived from data from the Nimbus 7 TOMS and three successive TOMS flights on Russian, Japanese, and American satellites. The next TOMS flight will be launched in 2000. The contiguous mapping design and fortuitous choice of TOMS wavelengths bands also permitted imaging of a second atmospheric gas, sulfur dioxide, which is transient due to its short lifetime. The importance of this measurement was first realized after the eruption of El Chichon volcano in 1982. The extreme range of sizes of volcanic eruptions and the associated danger require observations from a distant observing platform. The first quantitative time series of the input of sulfur dioxide by explosive volcanic eruptions into the atmosphere thus was developed from the TOMS missions. Finally, the Rayleigh and aerosol scattering spectral characteristic and reflectivity complete the four dominant pieces of information in the near UV albedo of the Earth. The four parameters are derived with a linear algorithm, the absorption coefficients of the gases, and effective paths computed from radiative transfer tables. Absorbing aerosol clouds (smoke, dust, volcanic ash) are readily identified by their deviation from a Rayleigh signature. The greatest shortcoming of the TOMS dataset is the 24 hour time resolution that is produced by the polar orbit of the satellite. Dynamic phenomena, such as upper air fronts that modulate total ozone and volcanic eruptions of sulfur dioxide and ash, cannot be adequately resolved. It is hoped that UV observations from geostationary satellites will soon be made to test the value of this unique information in weather forecasting and aviation safety.

Krueger, Arlin↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Neurovascular effects of simulated space radiation

A major health risk for human deep space exploration is central nervous system (CNS) damage by ionizing radiation. Simulated galactic cosmic rays or their components, especially high-linear energy transfer particles such as 56Fe ions, have been shown to cause CNS damage, neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction in rodent models, but their effects on human CNS remain to be investigated. CNS damage from any insult, including ionizing radiation, is partially mediated by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which regulates interactions between CNS and the rest of the body. Astrocytes are major cellular regulators of BBB permeability and also modulate neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. However, BBB and astrocyte functions in regulating CNS responses to space radiation remain little investigated, especially in human organ analogs. Therefore, we developed and utilized a high-throughput 3D human neurovascular organ-on-a-chip model, seeded with induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cells. The effects of time course, ionizing radiation dose and dose rate were mapped by exposing the model to either acute, high dose rate radiation with simulated galactic cosmic rays or 600 MeV/n 56Fe particles, or protracted, low dose rate gamma radiation using a 57Co sealed source setup. We investigated BBB permeability, oxidative stress, cellular damage and secreted factors over the time period between 24 hours – 2 weeks after 0.1 – 0.8 Gy irradiation. We observed that ionizing radiation exposure increased BBB permeability, caused oxidative stress, damaged endothelial cells and altered expression of inflammatory cytokines with a subset of outcomes dependent on ionizing radiation dose rate. Furthermore, our results indicated that astrocyte functions were primarily deleterious at early time points and protective later after irradiation, resembling CNS responses to injury in vivo. Our findings in organ models were complemented by studies on true spaceflight using mouse spatial and single cell multi-omics, which similarly indicated spaceflight-mediated changes in astrocyte functions. In summary, our study evaluates the regulation of neurovascular responses to simulated space radiation, suggesting astrocytes as targets for countermeasures to mitigate CNS damage in deep space exploration.

Radiation↗
NASA NTRS1996

A technique for determining cloud free vs cloud contaminated pixels in satellite imagery

Since the first earth orbiting satellite sent pictures of the earth back to them, atmospheric scientists have been focused on the possibilities of using that information as both a forecasting tool and as a meteorological research tool. With the latest generation of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) now entering service, that view of the earth yields views at a frequency and resolution never before available. These satellites have imagers with a five band multi-spectral capability with high spatial resolution. In addition, the sounder has eighteen thermal infrared (IR) channels plus one low-resolution visible band. With a resolution as small as one kilometer, GOES provides scientists with a powerful eye on the atmosphere. Menzel and Purdom (1994) detail both the imager and sounder capability as well as other systems on the GOES satellites. Immediately apparent in the visible channel are the patterns of clouds swirling over both oceans and continents. These clouds range in size from huge planetary systems covering thousands of kilometers to puffy fair weather cumulus clouds on the order of half a kilometer in size. With the IR sensors temperature patterns are observed. High clouds appear very cold, while low stratus field show temperatures near that of the surface. The surface, in turn, generally appears warmer than the clouds. It would seem then a simple manner to determine cloud and surface temperature from the imagery, but such is not the case. While most of the atmospheric constituents are well mixed and homogeneous, water vapor is not. The water molecule, because of its unique structure and vibration modes, affects the transmittance of the atmosphere most notably in the infrared regions. There are regions of the IR spectrum where water vapor acts as a strong absorber, and at others it is nearly transparent. The transparent wavelengths are called windows, and one such window occurs at 11.2 microns. Adjacent to this window at 12.7 microns which is strongly absorbed by water vapor. These two wavelengths form what is known as a split window, the utility of which was used. Using the linearized form of the radiative transfer equation, they were able to use the split window to determine the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere. Jedlovec developed the physical split-window (PSW) technique which determines the integrated water content (IWC). The PSW method using Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) found on the older versions of the GOES satellites was used. Recently, Jedlovec and colleagues have been attempting to apply the PSW method using full disk IR imagery obtained by the new generation of GOES satellites. IWC is essential for improved analysis and prediction of convective storms which have been observed to develop in regions of both strong and rapidly evolving moisture gradients. It has also been used in the prediction of clouds and precipitation.

Wohlman, Richard A.↗
NASA NTRS2020

The AERONET Version 3 Aerosol Retrieval Algorithm, Associated Uncertainties and Comparisons to Version 2

The Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) Version 3 (V3) aerosol retrieval algorithm is described, which is based on the Version 2 (V2) algorithm with numerous updates. Comparisons of V3 aerosol retrievals to those of V2 are presented, along with a new approach to estimate uncertainties in many of the retrieved aerosol parameters. Changes in the V3 aerosol retrieval algorithm include (1) a new polarized radiative transfer code (RTC), which replaced the scalar RTC of V2, (2) detailed characterization of gas absorption by adding NO2 and H2O to specify total gas absorption in the atmospheric column, specification of vertical profiles of all the atmospheric species, (3) new bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) parameters for land sites adopted from the MODIS BRDF/Albedo product, (4) a new version of the extraterrestrial solar flux spectrum, and (5) a new temperature correction procedure of both direct Sun and sky radiance measurements. The potential effect of each change in V3 on single scattering albedo (SSA) retrievals was analyzed. The operational almucantar retrievals of V2 versus V3 were compared for four AERONET sites: GSFC, Mezaira, Mongu, and Kanpur. Analysis showed very good agreement in retrieved parameters of the size distributions. Comparisons of SSA retrievals for dust aerosols (Mezaira) showed a good agreement in 440 nm SSA, while for longer wavelengths V3 SSAs are systematically higher than those of V2, with the largest mean difference at 675 nm due to cumulative effects of both extraterrestrial solar flux and BRDF changes. For non-dust aerosols, the largest SSA deviation is at 675 nm due to differences in extraterrestrial solar flux spectrums used in each version. Further, the SSA 675 nm mean differences are very different for weakly (GSFC) and strongly (Mongu) absorbing aerosols, which is explained by the lower sensitivity to a bias in aerosol scattering optical depth by less absorbing aerosols. A new hybrid (HYB) sky radiance measurement scan is introduced and discussed. The HYB combines features of scans in two different planes to maximize the range of scattering angles and achieve scan symmetry, thereby allowing for cloud screening and spatial averaging, which is an advantage over the principal plane scan that lacks robust symmetry. We show that due to an extended range of scattering angles, HYB SSA retrievals for dust aerosols exhibit smaller variability with solar zenith angles (SZAs) than those of almucantar (ALM), which allows extension of HYB SSA retrievals to SZAs less than 50∘ to as small as 25∘. The comparison of SSA retrievals from closely time-matched HYB and ALM scans in the 50 to 75∘ SZA range showed good agreement with the differences below ∼0.005. We also present an approach to estimate retrieval uncertainties which utilizes the variability in retrieved parameters generated by perturbing both measurements and auxiliary input parameters as a proxy for retrieval uncertainty. The perturbations in measurements and auxiliary inputs are assumed as estimated biases in aerosol optical depth (AOD), radiometric calibration of sky radiances combined with solar spectral irradiance, and surface reflectance. For each set of Level 2 Sun/sky radiometer observations, 27 inputs corresponding to 27 combinations of biases were produced and separately inverted to generate the following statistics of the inversion results: average, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values. From these statistics, standard deviation (labeled U27) is used as a proxy for estimated uncertainty, and a lookup table (LUT) approach was implemented to reduce the computational time. The U27 climatological LUT was generated from the entire AERONET almucantar (1993–2018) and hybrid (2014–2018) scan databases by binning U27s in AOD (440 nm), Angström exponent (AE, 440–870 nm), and SSA (440, 675, 870, 1020 nm). Using this LUT approach, the uncertainty estimates U27 for each individual V3 Level 2 retrieval can be obtained by interpolation using the corresponding measured and inverted combination of AOD, AE, and SSA.

Aliaksandr Siniuk↗