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DOE OSTI2025

Additive Manufacturing of Fe-based Alloys for Nuclear Reactor Environments

This report is a Milestone 2 deliverable in FY2025, under work package MT-25AN090211 to support research and qualification activities supported by the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies (AMMT) program. It provides an update on the work done on the laser based additive manufacturing of steels for nuclear applications, conducted collaboratively by Argonne National Laboratory and Pacific Northwestern National Laboratory. Building upon FY23 and FY24 efforts, the focus of FY25 includes continued optimization of process parameters for the alloys: A709 & G92. The work package also includes fabricating test samples to conduct a thorough microstructural analysis and perform preliminary mechanical testing. The major accomplishments of this work package are summarized below, applicable to both Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) processes conducted at Argonne National Laboratory and Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED) processes conducted at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2026

PARTICULATE STUDY OF NEG PUMPS IRRADIATED IN THE CEBAF TUNNEL

Non-evaporable getter (NEG) pumps are being used to maintain ultra-high vacuum in the beamline of superconducting radio-frequency (SRF) accelerators, such as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF) at Jefferson Lab. Because of the sensitivity of the performance of SRF cavities to particulate contamination, it is important to evaluate the integrity of the NEG material after exposure to high radiation during beam operation. The particulate from two NEG pumps based on ZAO® getter alloy was measured with a particle counter in a clean-room. The pumps were assembled onto a hermetically sealed setup which was placed in the CEBAF tunnel. The setup was exposed to 24 h beam operation for ~ 230 days. The total gamma-rays dose measured on the test setup was ~ 1.6 Mrad. The total neutron dose measured at ~ 75 cm of the test setup was ~ 11 krad. The particulate count from the two pumps was measured again in the clean-room after irradiation. Whereas an increase of particulate counts was measured, compared to before irradiation, subsequent measurements indicate the absence of systematically loose particulate. The pumping speed of one of the irradiated pumps was also measured to be consistent with that of a non-irradiated one, corroborating the absence of significant damage to the ZAO® NEG material due to irradiation.

Ciovati, G. [Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator↗

DOE OSTI2026

PARTICULATE STUDY OF NEG PUMPS IRRADIATED IN THE CEBAF TUNNEL

Ciovati, Gianluigi [Thomas Jefferson National Acce↗

DOE OSTI2025

What drives embodied carbon policy? A global perspective on adoption

Abstract Embodied carbon refers to the greenhouse gas emission associated with the lifecycle of buildings. Embodied carbon policies are critical for addressing the environmental impact of construction materials and advancing climate goals. Despite their importance, the adoption of embodied carbon policies has been limited globally, influenced by economic, environmental, institutional, and trade factors. This study employs structural equation modeling to analyze 37 countries, testing ten hypotheses across four categorical factors. The base model reveals the significant influence of environmental vulnerability and institutional frameworks on policy adoption, while robustness models confirm the critical role of trade dependencies and economic competitiveness in shaping national embodied carbon strategies. Findings underscore that countries with high climate vulnerability and strong institutional support are more likely to adopt embodied carbon policies. Conversely, trade-reliant nations face challenges balancing competitiveness and sustainability. Policy implications suggest the need for international collaboration to align trade policies with carbon reduction goals, targeted support for vulnerable nations, and the integration of embodied carbon considerations into existing climate frameworks. These results offer a roadmap for policymakers to design more effective and equitable embodied carbon policies, fostering global progress toward sustainable construction and decarbonization.

Hu, Ming (ORCID:0000000325831161)↗

DOE OSTI2025

Phase transformation kinetics model for metals

We develop a new model for phase transformation kinetics in metals by generalizing the Levitas–Preston (LP) phase field model of martensite phase transformations (see Levitas and Preston (2002a,b) and Levitas et al. (2003)) to arbitrary pressure. Furthermore, we account for and track: the interface speed of the pressure-driven phase transformation, properties of critical nuclei, as well as nucleation at grain sites and on dislocations and homogeneous nucleation. The volume fraction evolution of each phase is described by employing KJMA (Kolmogorov, 1937; Johnson and Mehl, 1939; Avrami, 1939, 1940, 1941) kinetic theory. We then test our new model for iron under ramp loading conditions and compare our predictions for the α → ϵ iron phase transition to experimental data of Smith et al. (2013). In conclusion, more than one combination of material and model parameters (such as dislocation density and interface speed) led to good agreement of our simulations to the experimental data, thus highlighting the importance of having accurate microstructure data for the sample under consideration.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Thermal images collected during 3D printing with Cincinnati BAAM

This data set contains images produced to test the performance of anomaly and fault detection methods in the context of additive manufacturing. A total of 10 print jobs were executed using a Cincinnati BAAM (model 606) with a Cincinnati medium compression screw. The material used was compounded polylactic acid (PLA) with wood flour as a filler produced by Jabil (80% NatureWorks Ingeo 6060D amorphous PLA, % 100 mesh pine flour from American Wood Fiber). Print sheets were 1/4in polycarbonate.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

A Zero-Emission Process for Direct Reduction of Iron by Hydrogen Plasma in a Rotary Kiln Reactor

This project’s goal was to demonstrate a hydrogen plasma (H-plasma)-rotary kiln process for reducing iron ore to iron as part of the steel manufacturing process. The H-plasma provides a greater thermodynamic driving force for reducing iron ores than thermal processes such as the DRI process, enabling lower reaction temperatures. We estimated that our process technology can reduce energy consumption by 45% compared to the blast furnace process and ~15% compared to the DRI process. Steel manufacturing produces about 1.8 tons of CO2/ton of steel with iron ore reduction accounting for about one-third of the CO2 produced in the overall manufacturing process. We estimated our process has the potential to reduce GHG emissions from ironmaking by 35% with today’s grid and by up to 88% with a future low-carbon grid while being cost competitive with the current blast furnace route. We demonstrated reduction of hematite and magnetite rich materials at temperatures from 600 to 800°C. We achieved 90-95% metallization on 100 gr samples in batch reduction experiments in the H-plasma rotary kiln furnace at 600-650°C. Attempts to perform tests in a continuous operation mode identified problems with the ore feed mechanism. We identified solutions but there was not time nor budget to correct these for this project

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

Solar Decarbonization of Paraffin Dehydrogenation Through Particle Heat Carriers (Final Technical Report)

This project focuses on solutions to decarbonize high-temperature catalytic processes using solar thermal heat. The primary project goal is to show the validity of a moving packed bed reactor for propane dehydrogenation using catalyst particles as the heat carrier for the reaction, which can be heated by concentrated solar energy in a particle receiver. This concept, if further developed, may provide a cost-effective pathway for converting lower value gases to important chemical precursors for industrial materials using only renewable energy. The project was divided into six tasks. In Task 1, DFT calculations were performed to understand the role of Pt and Sn in the catalytic dehydrogenation reaction. In Task 2 chemical kinetics measurements were made for several catalyst formulations at high temperatures. In Task 3, the solar absorptance of catalyst particles was compared to the absorptance of commonly used materials in particle receivers. In Task 4, numerical models were developed which could predict performance of the complete system and predict specific temperatures in the system. In Task 5, a prototype system was designed, fabricated, and tested to show the validity of the concept. Task 6 concerned project management activities. Experiments with the prototype showed repeatable thermal performance at temperatures targeted for the reaction. A limited set of tests were done with active catalyst and propane dehydrogenation, showing conversion of propane to propylene with a range of conversions and selectivities. The results are promising, and the prototype designed was reliable during testing, and the team expects that further development of the prototype would yield improved results. A numerical model framework based on coupled fluid and particle mechanics was developed with high computational efficiency using GPU calculations. The model may prove highly useful for evaluating other high-temperature particle systems. However, it was determined that simpler porous media models were good fits for the needs of the current moving packed bed concept. Data showing strong solar absorption of the particles validates the plan of using existing solar particle receivers with only a change in the particle type. Catalyst investigation showed that Pt 1 Sn 3 is the most viable candidate for developing PtSn catalysts for high temperature propane dehydrogenation, considering the balance of activity, selectivity, and deactivation. This project completed an initial study of various factors needed to incorporate a moving bed catalytic reactor for propane dehydrogenation into a concentrated solar thermal particle system. Future developments may allow this technology to be scaled up and help to use solar thermal energy to decarbonize not only the propane dehydrogenation reaction, but other gas-solid catalytic reactions at similar temperatures.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Elastic Modulus Measurement at High Temperatures for Miniature Ceramic Samples Using Laser Micro-Machining and Thermal Mechanical Analyzer

In this paper, we demonstrate a method of measuring the flexural elastic modulus of ceramics at an intermediate (~millimeter) scale at high temperatures. We used a picosecond laser to precisely cut microbeams from the location of interest in a bulk ceramic. They had a cross-section of approximately 100 μm × 300 μm and a length of ~1 cm. They were then tested in a thermal mechanical analyzer at room temperature, 500 °C, 800 °C, and 1100 °C using the four-point flexural testing method. We compared the elastic moduli of high-purity Al2O3 and AlN measured by our method with the reported values in the literature and found that the difference was less than 5% for both materials. This paper provides a new and accurate method of characterizing the high-temperature elastic modulus of miniature samples extracted from representative/selected areas of bulk materials.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2025

Ion implantation of magnesium guests into type II silicon clathrate films: an alternate approach to doping a cage-like silicon allotrope

Type II silicon clathrates, with their unique cage-like structure, offer exciting potential for applications in thermoelectrics, photovoltaics, and quantum materials due to their tunable electronic and thermal properties. This study investigates the use of ion implantation to introduce targeted guest atoms, which act as dopants, into type II Si clathrate films. The focus is on Mg as a test case for implantation, a dopant previously unreported in type II Si clathrates. The effects of ion implantation on the metastable Si clathrate structure were examined through systematic investigation of implant parameters. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry depth profiling confirmed the successful implantation of Mg, while X-ray diffraction and confocal Raman spectroscopy demonstrated minimal structural damage at lower fluences, with the clathrate framework retaining its integrity without converting to other phases. At the higher end of the fluence range implantation caused localized transitions from clathrate to amorphous silicon. Implant activation using rapid thermal annealing was examined with the clathrate structure stable up to 500 °C and being converted to diamond silicon above this temperature. Post-implantation and activation structural characterization showed evidence of damage reversal. Electron paramagnetic resonance studies provided indirect evidence of dopant incorporation. These findings establish a foundation for introducing alternative guests/dopants into the Si clathrate cages through ion implantation, advancing their tunability for next-generation quantum and optoelectronic devices.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Summary of Graphite Data Stored within NDMAS

The Graphite Technology Development Project provides data to support the design of graphite core components within specific reactor service conditions of the next generation of high-temperature, gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of nuclear grade graphite were characterized for specimens that were unirradiated, irradiated, and irradiated under various stress conditions. The material properties include diameter, length, mass, density, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus, resistivity, thermal diffusivity, and thermal expansion coefficient. Baseline graphite specimens are unirradiated from different grades (2114, IG-110, NBG-17, NBG-18, and PCEA) and different types used in different characterization tests (compressive, flexural, tensile, one-inch cylinder, and quarter-inch cylinder). The Advanced Graphite Creep (AGC) irradiation specimens are from a much larger number of grades and cylinder types (creep, piggyback, and pencil). For baseline graphite, characterization data for 7,756 specimens extracted from thirteen graphite billets were captured to the NDMAS database. For AGC experiments, four irradiation campaigns have been completed: AGC-1, AGC-2, AGC-3, and AGC-4. The ongoing HDG-1 (High-Dose Graphite) experiment, which began irradiation with Cycle 168B on August 26, 2020, includes specimens previously irradiated in AGC-2 in addition to the specimens originally destined for AGC-5.. Besides the characterization data, the AGC data includes irradiation monitoring and physics data representing the irradiation conditions of AGC specimens. Currently, all data for AGC-1, AGC-2, and AGC-3 have been captured to the NDMAS database. Only AGC-4 pre-irradiation and irradiation monitoring data have been captured, and HDG-1 pre-irradiation data are in process of being captured for unirradiated specimens. To date, a total of 38,149 material property records have been captured into NDMAS database for baseline and AGC specimens. All characterization data are qualified for use according to their perspective data verification reports. For the AGC irradiation campaigns, a total of 41,502 qualified physics calculation records were added for AGC-1, AGC-2, and AGC-3. Finally, a total of 173,698,505 AGC irradiation monitoring data records (thermocouple temperature, gas flow rate, gas pressure, gas moisture, applied load, and specimen displacement) have been captured to NDMAS; the majority of those records (~94%) are qualified data records.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Uncertainty quantification of material parameters in modeling coupled metal and high explosive experiments

Experiments involving the coupling of metal and high explosives (HE) are of notable defense-related interest, and we seek to refine the uncertainty quantification associated with models of such experiments. In particular, our focus is on how uncertainty related to the metal constitutive model challenges our ability to infer high explosive model parameters when analyzing focused science experiments. We consider three focused experiments involving an HE accelerating metal: small plate tests with tantalum/LX-14 and tantalum/LX-17 pairings as well as a tantalum/LX-17 cylinder test. For all three models, we perform sensitivity analysis to ascertain the influence of metal strength on the coupled experimental response. Moreover, we calibrate each model in a Bayesian setting and study the quantification of metal strength on the inference of the HE parameters. Based on our results, we offer guidance for future metal/HE experiments.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Thermal property characterization of phase change materials in building applications: A systematic review of fundamentals, recent progress, and future directions

Phase change materials (PCMs) can reduce building peak loads and enable demand-responsive thermal energy storage (TES), but their deployment depends on reliable measurement and interpretation of thermal properties across laboratory, intermediate, and application scales. Here, this review systematically examines characterization methods, testing protocols, and recent advances for neat PCMs and PCM composites, emphasizing thermal conductivity, enthalpy-related properties (phase change temperature, latent heat, specific heat), and cycling stability. For thermal conductivity, we compare steady-state and transient techniques and note limitations when phase transition and contact resistance affect measurements. For enthalpy–temperature characterization, we discuss differential scanning calorimetry together with intermediate- and bulk-scale methods, including T-history, heat flow meter testing, and three-layer calorimetry (3LC), to generate application-relevant enthalpy–temperature profiles. Cycling stability is organized into four experimental families: thermoelectric–air, fully thermoelectric, water-bath, and in situ chamber approaches, with attention to separating reversible supercooling from true degradation such as phase segregation. We highlight emerging noncontact diagnostics, including infrared thermography and embedded sensing, for spatially resolved validation and multiscale interpretation. Finally, we review the growing use of AI and machine learning for property prediction, inverse characterization from experimental signals, and real-time state estimation in building-integrated TES. Key needs include harmonized protocols, interlaboratory benchmarking, uncertainty reporting, and metadata-rich datasets to accelerate reproducible PCM qualification for grid-flexible buildings.

AI↗

DOE OSTI2025

Current activated reactive ultrafast joining (CARUJ) of silicon carbide

In this work we propose and demonstrate a novel approach for rapid fabrication of ceramic-ceramic joint assemblies, using sintered Silicon Carbide (SiC) as an initial example. Current Activated Reactive Ultrafast Joining (CARUJ) utilizes resistive heating of carbon-based materials to apply localized heat at or around the joint zone at heating rates of 101– 103 °C/min. CARUJ is used to fabricate SiC-SiC joints with a Si-SiC interface using minimal pressure (1–2 MPa) at time scales considerably shorter (several minutes opposed to hours) than conventional approaches for similar systems. The reaction of an interfacial precursor based on elemental silicon and carbon leads to in-situ SiC formation to produce a continuous and dense bond in a single step. Measured average joint strengths of roughly 15 MPa are achieved when tested in single lap offset (SLO) compressive shear. Optional additions of refractory metals such as molybdenum can be utilized to introduce secondary inclusions such as MoSi 2 within the joint interface. We further demonstrate SiC-SiC joining using Active Brazing Alloys (ABA) and proof of concept joining of tubular geometries. The localized and rapid heat application realizes a versatile material joining technique that could be extended for joining components at the plant site.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Subvoxel Control of Fiber Orientation via Multidirectional Shearing in 3D Printing

Anisotropy, the characteristic of materials exhibiting different properties based on their direction, is widespread in nature. Conventional manufacturing techniques often fall short in recreating such complex anisotropy. While 3D printing allows for precise fiber deposition in anisotropic composites, previous studies have only achieved bulk reorientation of fibers at the voxel level in two dimensions. This limits the replication of localized 3D anisotropies found in natural materials. To address this, a novel 3D printing technique is presented that enables subvoxel control of fiber orientation in all three directions using multidirectional shearing via nozzle rotation and inclination. The fiber orientation control in these experimental tests is driven by a numerical model, enabling a fully digital approach to program microstructures within a strand. This programmability is demonstrated through mechanical and thermal tests, illustrating a localized and controllable response to external stimuli. Achieving such complex anisotropy holds potential across several fields, including wearables and biomedical implants, lightweight composite structures, and energy storage technologies such as batteries and supercapacitors.

3D printing↗

DOE OSTI2025

Ensemble cure kinetics network (ECK-Net): A method to derive cure kinetics of thermosetting resin

This paper introduces an Ensemble Cure Kinetics Network (ECK-Net), a neural network (NN)–based framework for modeling the cure kinetics of thermosetting resins within a phenomenological context. ECK-Net replaces traditional analytic models, which require extensive chemical insight and multiple isothermal/non-isothermal experiments, with a data-driven surrogate that maps nonlinear relationships between temperature, degree of cure, and reaction rate from differential scanning calorimetry data. The proposed approach predicts input-dependent kinetic coefficients of a generalized nth-order reaction equation rather than reaction rates directly, enabling a single unified model to represent various epoxy systems without relying on iso-conversional analysis or predefined functional forms. To ensure robustness, multiple independently trained networks under different random initializations are blended through an ensemble strategy, effectively mitigating the stochastic variability inherent to neural networks. The framework is validated using experimental datasets from multiple resin systems, including aerospace-grade materials (Toray 3900-2, Cycom 5320-1, and Hexcel 8552) and a windmill-grade resin (RIMR 035c). The model accurately reproduces the temporal evolution of the degree of cure under manufacturers’ recommended cure cycles across all tested resins systems, yielding Pearson’s correlation coefficients of 0.992, 0.994, 0.993, 0.997, respectively. To demonstrate process-level applicability, the trained network was implemented within the Abaqus environment to simulate out-of-autoclave (OOA) curing process of the CFRP panel composed of Toray T830H-6K/3900-2D prepreg. The simulation results showed excellent agreement with experimental temperature response (maximum peak temperature, simulation: 189.6 °C, experiment: 188.5 °C) and the final degree of cure (simulation: 0.948, experiment: 0.960 ± 0.013), confirming ECK-Net’s capability as a reliable alternative to conventional cure kinetics modeling methods.

Composite curing↗

DOE OSTI2026

Flash Heating of a Hollow Rod to Determine Thermal Properties

In a nuclear reactor, prolonged exposure to high neutron flux levels can change material properties of reactor components. Due to the danger posed to personnel by highly radioactive components such as spent fuel, noncontact methods must be used to determine these properties. The objective of the current research is to test the viability of using a flash-heating method to determine the thermal diffusivity of a silicon carbide (SiC) tube, which could be used as cladding for a nuclear fuel rod. The flash-heating experiment was conducted at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and temperature results were analyzed as a two-Dimensional cross section which assumed axial symmetry. The model was fitted iteratively to the temperature measurements using nonlinear regression which required values for thermal diffusivity, Biot number and a term to determine the magnitude of the heat absorbed by the flash. The method could be expanded in the future to estimate the thermal diffusivity of spent nuclear fuel rods in an effort to increase the certainty of new reactor designs using precise thermal properties throughout the core life. A statistical analysis of the results of this work is provided as part of the analysis.

McMasters, Robert L [Virginia Military Institute, ↗

DOE OSTI2026

Low-Temperature Plasma-Based Metrology of Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Materials (CRADA Final Report)

As part of the Cyclotron Road program, SirenOpt Inc. evaluated its low-temperature plasma-based metrology sensor prototype for measuring multiple critical properties of lithium-ion battery electrode materials in parallel and in real-time. Cost-effective, minimal-waste manufacturing of high-performance battery electrode materials will be vital for achieving society’s net-zero carbon emission goals. Because existing electrode metrology sensors cannot operate within most sections of manufacturing lines, manufacturers often complete hundreds of processing steps before they can test their products and detect problems. When manufacturers perform these offline tests, they typically only test a small portion of the manufactured products. Current electrode manufacturing thus often yields many low-quality products, or off-spec products that must be thrown away all together. For example, at least 6% of the total lithium-ion battery manufacturing cost (i.e., over $250 million/year for the average gigafactory) is devoted to processing defective electrodes that are not scrapped until performance tests are failed during late-stage quality control checks. Electrode variability also leads manufacturers to build extra cells into battery packs to reduce the risk of poor performance. For example, many electric vehicle (EV) manufacturers include up to 10% more cells than needed, which substantially increases the cost and weight of the final EV product. The SirenOpt sensor can potentially enable early detection of poorly manufactured electrodes and allow them to be removed earlier from manufacturing lines, which can save battery manufacturers (hundreds of) millions of dollars per year. The sensor can further be used to improve product quality by accelerating R&D and process optimization, improving quality control, and enabling real-time process control. Overall, a real-time, in-situ metrology strategy can create unprecedented opportunities for implementation of smart manufacturing practices and advanced quality and process control solutions to realize higher battery electrode throughput and performance.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗