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NASA NTRS1999

Risk Reduction on X-33/RLV Engines

Risk management has received considerable attention in the X-33 and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) program due to aggressive schedules, limited funding. and planned private investment to develop the commercial VentureStar vehicle. As an X-33 and RLV team member and main propulsion supplier, Boeing Rocketdyn Propulsion and Power has addressed risk through a methodical application of systems engineering in identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks. The methods employed involve rigorous risk mitigation planning early in development, continuous risk monitoring and assessment during the course of development, and the systematic verification of compliance with technical requirements prior to delivery. In addition, an engine system reliability analysis was conducted to reduce risk. In July 1996, NASA selected Lockheed Martin's "Skunk Works" (LMSW) as the lead contractor for the X-33 and RLV program. The X-33 vehicle is a half-scale pathfinder for the full-scale RLV. The LMSW RLV design is a lifting body shaped vehicle employing linear aerospike engine provided propulsion. The initial X-33 flight is planned for the summer of 2000, and the initial VentureStar flight is planned for between 2005 and 2007.

Crowley, Tim↗

NASA NTRS1998

Impact of the 1997-1998 El Nino on Atmospheric Circulation

The 1997-1998 E1 Nino created significant anomalies in global circulation patterns. We monitored the E1 Nino event, using TOVS (TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder) data, as part of the Laboratory for Atmospheres TOVS Pathfinder Data Set. TOVS has flown on the NOAA operational polar orbiting satellites from November 1978 to present. We have analyzed data from NOAA 9, 10, 11, 12, and 14, covering January 1985 to the present, using a consistent processing scheme. The data set contains 2-4 times daily global fields of land/ocean surface skin temperature, atmospheric temperature-moisture profiles, cloud top pressure and fractional cloud cover, OLR and clear sky Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR), and precipitation estimate. We have generated anomalies of all fields compared to a 12 year climatology of our data set, covering the period 1985-1996. Anomalies during the current E1 Nino were compared to those of other E1 Nino-La Nina episodes since 1985, with particular attention paid to tropical anomalies of surface skin and air temperature, precipitation, upper tropospheric water vapor, OLR, and clear sky OLR. All the El Nino-La Nina events produce similar patterns, but the magnitude of the current anomalies in all fields is considerably greater than those during the previous weaker surface skin temperature anomaly episodes. Significant extra-tropical anomalies were found during the current E1 Nino as well.

Susskind, Joel↗

NASA NTRS1998

Investigations in Martian Sedimentology

The purpose of this report is to investigate and discuss the Martian surface. This report was done in specific tasks. The tasks were: characterization of Martian fluids and chemical sediments; mass wasting and ground collapse in terrains of volatile-rich deposits; Mars Rover terrestrial field investigations; Mars Pathfinder operations support; and Martian subsurface water instrument.

Moore, Jeffrey M.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Development of a Satellite Systems for Measuring Soil Moisture

The science need for remotely sensed soil moisture has been well established in the hydrologic, climate change and weather forecasting communities. There also have been a number of programs that have demonstrated the feasibility of using long wave microwave sensors for estimating soil moisture. These have ranged from truck mounted sensors, to intensive airborne campaigns with science objectives. Based on this history of truck and aircraft experiments, the science community has settled on a soil moisture product that meets the following criteria: a two day global repeat, a measured layer of 5 cm of soil, a footprint of 20 to 30 km, and an absolute accuracy of +/- 4% volumetric soil moisture. The principal sensor to accomplish this is an L-band passive microwave radiometer. A soil moisture mission is being proposed for the NASA Earth Systems Science Pathfinder (ESSP) mission which has very real constraints of a limited budget which includes the launch vehicle, and a three year award to launch time schedule. This paper describes ways to solve the very large antenna challenge, and the criteria used to choose the final design for an ESSP proposal. The paper also discusses the alternatives considered to obtain the necessary ancillary data for characterizing the surface roughness, the surface temperature and the attenuation affects of vegetation.

Engman, Edwin T.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Experimental Studies of Mars-Analog Brines

Evaporite deposits may represent significant sinks of mobile cations (e.g., those of Ca, N, Mg, and Fe) and anions (e.g., those of C, N, S, and Cl) among the materials composing the Martian surface and upper crust. Carbon and nitrogen are especially interesting because of their role as atmospheric gases which can become incorporated into crustal rocks. However, the nature of evaporite precursor brines formed under Martian conditions is poorly understood. To date, only a very limited number of laboratory investigations have been reported which have any bearing on a better understanding of various processes related to brine or evaporite formation on Mars. Here we report on preliminary laboratory experiments that exposed igneous minerals analogous to those in Martian (Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassigny (SNC) group) meteorites to a simulated Martian atmosphere and pure, deoxygenated water. Analysis of the water over intervals of time approaching 1 year showed that atmospheric gases dissolved to form carbonate and nitrate ions while minerals dissolved to form sulfate and chloride along with various cations. On an annual basis, ion formation gave a carbonate/sulfate ratio that is comparable to the ratio found among salts in SNC meteorites. The sulfate/chloride ratio of the experimental brines is higher than in SNC meteorites but lower than in surface soils measured at the Viking and Pathfinder landing sites.

Moore, Jeffrey M.↗

NASA NTRS1999

The New Millenium Program ST-5 Mission: Nanosatellite Constellation Trailblazer

NASA's New Millenium Program has recently selected the Nanosatellite Constellation Trailblazer (NCT) as its fifth mission (ST-5). NCT will consist of 3 small, very capable and highly autonomous satellites which will be operated as a single "constellation" with minimal ground operations support. Each spacecraft will be approximately 40 cm in diameter by 20 cm in height and weigh only 20 kg. These small satellites will incorporate 8 new technologies essential to the further miniaturization of space science spacecraft which need space flight validation. In this talk we will describe in greater detail the NCT mission concept and goals, the exciting new technologies it will validate, and the role of miniaturized particles and fields sensors in this project. Finally, NCT's pathfinder function for such future NASA missions as Magnetotail Constellation and Inner Magnetosphere Constellation will be discussed.

Slavin, James A.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Characterization of Settled Atmospheric Dust by the DART Experiment

The DART ("Dust Accumulation and Removal Test") package is an experiment which will fly as part of the MIP experiment on the Mars-2001 Surveyor Lander. Dust deposition could be a significant problem for photovoltaic array operation for long duration emissions on the surface of Mars. Measurements made by Pathfinder showed 0.3% loss of solar array performance per day due to dust obscuration. The DART experiment is designed to quantify dust deposition from the Mars atmosphere, measure the properties of settled dust, measure the effect of dust deposition on the array performance, and test several methods of mitigating the effect of settled dust on a solar array. Although the purpose of DART (along with its sister experiment, MATE) is to gather information critical to the design of future power systems on the surface of Mars, the dust characterization instrumentation on DART will also provide significant scientific data on the properties of settled atmospheric dust.

Landis, Geoffrey A.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Compositions of Mars Rocks: SNC Meteorites, Differentiates, and Soils

The 13 samples from Mars identified in the terrestrial meteorite collections vary from dunite to pyroxenite to microgabbro or basalt. All of these rocks appear to have formed from primitive melts with similar major element compositional characteristics; i.e., FeO-rich and Al2O3-Poor melts relative to terrestrial basalt compositions. Although all of the SNC rocks can be derived by melting of the same Al-depleted mantle, contamination of SNC's by a Rb-enriched mantle or crustal source is required to explain the different REE characteristics of SNC rocks. Thus, there are indications of an old crustal rocktype on Mars, and this rock does not appear to have been sampled. This paper focuses primarily on the composition of the SNC basalts, however, and on the compositions of rocks which could be derived from SNC basaltic melt by magmatic processes. In particular, we consider the possible compositions which could be achieved through accumulation of early-formed crystals in the SNC primitive magma. Through a set of experiments we have determined (1) melt (magma) compositions which could be produced by melt evolution as crystals are removed from batches of this magma cooling at depth, and (2) which evolved (Si02enriched, MgO-depleted) rock compositions could be produced from the SNC magma, and how these compare with the Pathfinder andesite composition. Finally, we compare the SNC magma compositions to the Mars soil composition in order to determine whether any source other than SNC is required.

Rutherford, M. J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

NASA'S Earth Science Enterprise Embraces Active Laser Remote Sensing from Space

Several objectives of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise are accomplished, and in some cases, uniquely enabled by the advantages of earth-orbiting active lidar (laser radar) sensors. With lidar, the photons that provide the excitation illumination for the desired measurement are both controlled and well known. The controlled characteristics include when and where the illumination occurs, the wavelength, bandwidth, pulse length, and polarization. These advantages translate into high signal levels, excellent spatial resolution, and independence from time of day and the sun's position. As the lidar technology has rapidly matured, ESE scientific endeavors have begun to use lidar sensors over the last 10 years. Several more lidar sensors are approved for future flight. The applications include both altimetry (rangefinding) and profiling. Hybrid missions, such as the approved Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) sensor to fly on the ICESat mission, will do both at the same time. Profiling applications encompass aerosol, cloud, wind, and molecular concentration measurements. Recent selection of the PICASSO Earth System Science Pathfinder mission and the complementary CLOUDSAT radar-based mission, both flying in formation with the EOS PM mission, will fully exploit the capabilities of multiple sensor systems to accomplish critical science needs requiring such profiling. To round out the briefing a review of past and planned ESE missions will be presented.

Luther, Michael R.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Development of Prototype Micro-Lidar using Narrow Linewidth Semiconductor Lasers for Mars Boundary Layer Wind and Dust Opacity Profiles

We have developed a compact Doppler lidar concept which utilizes recent developments in semiconductor diode laser technology in order to be considered suitable for wind and dust opacity profiling in the Mars lower atmosphere from a surface location. The current understanding of the Mars global climate and meteorology is very limited, with only sparse, near-surface data available from the Viking and Mars Pathfinder landers, supplemented by long-range remote sensing of the Martian atmosphere. The in situ measurements from a lander-based Doppler lidar would provide a unique dataset particularly for the boundary layer. The coupling of the radiative properties of the lower atmosphere with the dynamics involves the radiative absorption and scattering effects of the wind-driven dust. Variability in solar irradiance, on diurnal and seasonal time scales, drives vertical mixing and PBL (planetary boundary layer) thickness. The lidar data will also contribute to an understanding of the impact of wind-driven dust on lander and rover operations and lifetime through an improvement in our understanding of Mars climatology. In this paper we discuss the Mars lidar concept, and the development of a laboratory prototype for performance studies, using, local boundary layer and topographic target measurements.

Menzies, Robert T.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Fate of Earth Microbes on Mars -- UV Radiation Effects

A radiative transfer model is used to quantitatively investigate aspects of the martian ultraviolet radiation environment. Biological action spectra for DNA inactivation are used to estimate biologically effective irradiances for the martian surface under cloudless skies. Although the present-day martian UV flux is similar to early earth and thus may not be a limitation to life in the evolutionary context, it is a constraint to an unadapted biota and will rapidly kill spacecraft-borne microbes not covered by a martian dust layer. Here calculations for loss of microbial viability on the Pathfinder and Polar lander spacecraft are presented and the effects of martian dust on loss of viability are discussed. Details of the radiative transfer model are presented.

Cockell, Charles↗

NASA NTRS2000

Fate of Earth Microbes on Mars: UV Radiation Effects

Cockell, Charles↗

NASA NTRS1999

Polar-Wide Geophysical Products Derived from AVHRR

This is the final report for the AVHRR Polar Pathfinder (APP) project activities at Boston University (BU). The grant to J. Key is part of a group proposal with the University of Colorado (CU) as the lead institution (J. Masianik, PI). The report is a summary of accomplishments over the three-year BU project, although the NASA grant to BU was only for the third year. For the first two years funding at BU was obtained via a subcontract from CU. The overall project report will be provided by the investigators at the University of Colorado this fall, when their no-cost extension period is completed. That report will also contain the information given here. As per NASA guidelines, this report is limited to three pages.

Key, Jeffrey R.↗

NASA NTRS1999

In Situ Identification of Mineral Resources with an X-Ray-Optical "Hands-Lens" Instrument

The recognition of material resources on a planetary surface requires exploration strategies not dissimilar to those employed by early field geologists who searched for ore deposits primarily from surface clues. In order to determine the location of mineral ores or other materials, it will be necessary to characterize host terranes at regional or subregional scales. This requires geographically broad surveys in which statistically significant numbers of samples are rapidly scanned from a roving platform. To enable broad-scale, yet power-conservative planetary-surface exploration, we are developing an instrument that combines x-ray diffractometry (XRD), x-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), and optical capabilities; the instrument can be deployed at the end of a rover's robotic arm, without the need for sample capture or preparation. The instrument provides XRD data for identification of mineral species and lithological types; diffractometry of minerals is conducted by ascertaining the characteristic lattice parameters or "d-spacings" of mineral compounds. D-spacings of 1.4 to 25 angstroms can be determined to include the large molecular structures of hydrated minerals such as clays. The XRF data will identify elements ranging from carbon (Atomic Number = 6) to elements as heavy as barium (Atomic Number = 56). While a sample is being x-rayed, the instrument simultaneously acquires an optical image of the sample surface at magnifications from lx to at least 50x (200x being feasible, depending on the sample surface). We believe that imaging the sample is extremely important as corroborative sample-identification data (the need for this capability having been illustrated by the experience of the Pathfinder rover). Very few geologists would rely on instrument data for sample identification without having seen the sample. Visual inspection provides critical recognition data such as texture, crystallinity, granularity, porosity, vesicularity, color, lustre, opacity, and so forth. These data can immediately distinguish sedimentary from igneous rocks, for example, and can thus eliminate geochemical or mineral ambiguities arising, say between arkose and granite. It would be important to know if the clay being analyzed was part of a uniform varve deposit laid down in a quiescent lake, or the matrix of a megabreccia diamictite deposited as a catastrophic impact ejecta blanket. The unique design of the instrument, which combines Debye-Scherrer geometry with elements of standard goniometry, negates the need for sample preparation of any kind, and thus negates the need for power-hungry and mechanically-complex sampling systems that would have to chip, crush, sieve, and mount the sample for x-ray analysis. Instead, the instrument is simply rested on the sample surface of interest (like a hand lens); the device can interrogate rough rock surfaces, coarse granular material, or fine rock flour. A breadboard version of the instrument has been deployed from the robotic arm of the Marsokhod rover in field trials at NASA Ames, where large vesicular boulders were x-rayed to demonstrate the functionality of the instrument design, and the ability of such a device to comply with constraints imposed by a roving platform. Currently under development is a flight prototype concept of this instrument that will weigh 0.3 kg, using about 4500 J of energy per sample analysis. It requires about 5 min. for XRD analysis, and about 30 min. for XRF interrogation. Its small mass and rugged design make it ideal for deployment on small rovers of the type currently envisaged for the exploration of Mars (e.g., Sojourner-scale platforms). The design utilizes a monolithic P-N junction photodiode pixel array for XRD, a Si PIN photodiode/avalanche photodiode system for XRF, and an endoscopic imaging camera system unobtrusively embedded between the detectors and the x-ray source (the endoscope with its board-mounted camera can be adapted for IR light in addition to visible wavelenths. A rugged, miniature (7 cu cm) x-ray source for the instrument has already been breadboarded.

Marshall, J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Dust on Mars: An Aeolian Threat to Human Exploration?

The NASA HEDS Program is duly concerned for human explorers regarding the potential hazard posed by the ubiquitous dust mantle on Mars. To evaluate properties of dust that could be hazardous to humans, the MPS 2001 Lander payload will include the Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA) experiment. This includes optical and atomic-force microscopy to evaluate soil grains for shape and size, wet chemistry to evaluate toxic substances, electrometry to evaluate triboelectric charging, and test-material palets to evaluate electrostatic and magnetic adhesion, and the hardness/abrasiveness of soil grains; these experimental subcomponents are delivered samples by the camera-equipped robotic arm of the lander which will acquire material from depths of 0.5 to 1.0 m in the soil. Data returned by MECA will be of value to both the BEDS and planetary/astrobiology communities. Dust poses a threat to human exploration because the martian system does not hydrologically or chemically remove fine particles that are being continuously generated by thermal, aeolian, and colluvial weathering, and by volcanism and impact over billions of years. The dust is extremely fine-grained, in copious quantities, ubiquitous in distribution, continually mobile, and a source of poorly-grounded static charges -- a suite of characteristics posing a particulate and electrical threat to explorers and their equipment. Dust is mobilized on global and regional scales, but probably also unpredictably and violently at local scales by dust devils. The latter might be expected in great abundance owing to near surface atmospheric instability (dust devils were detected by Pathfinder during its brief lifetime). Preliminary laboratory experiments suggest that space-suit materials subjected to windblown dust may acquire a uniform, highly adhesive dust layer that is also highly cohesive laterally owing to electrostatic forces. This layer will obscure visibility through the helmet visor, penetrate joints and fabrics, change the thermal properties of the suit, and possibly affect electronic/electrical suit functions. It is paramount that future missions address the issue of interparticle forces, and in particular, the role played by ionizing radiation in affecting these forces on Mars.

Marshall, J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Dust on Mars: An Aeolian Threat to Human Exploration?

The NASA HEDS Program is duly concerned for human explorers regarding the potential hazard posed by the ubiquitous dust mantle on Mars. To evaluate properties of dust that could be hazardous to humans, the NMS 2001 Lander payload will include the Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA) experiment. This includes optical and atomic-force microscopy to evaluate soil grains for shape and size, wet chemistry to evaluate toxic substances, electrometry to evaluate triboelectric charging, and test-material palets to evaluate electrostatic and magnetic adhesion, and the hardness/abrasiveness of soil grains; these experimental subcomponents are delivered samples by the camera-equipped robotic arm of the lander which will acquire material from depths of 0.5 to 1.0 m in the soil. Data returned by MECA will be of value to both the hEDS and planetary/astrobiology communities. Dust poses a threat to human exploration because the martian system does not hydrologically or chemically remove fine particles that are being continuously generated by thermal, aeolian, and colluvial weathering, and by volcanism and impact over billions of years. The dust is extremely fine-grained, in copious quantities, ubiquitous in distribution, continually mobile, and a source of poorly-grounded static charges -- a suite of characteristics posing a particulate and electrical threat to explorers and their equipment. Dust is mobilized on global and regional scales, but probably also unpredictably and violently at local scales by dust devils. The latter might be expected in great abundance owing to near surface atmospheric instability (dust devils were detected by Pathfinder during its brief lifetime). Preliminary laboratory experiments suggest that space-suit materials subjected to windblown dust may acquire a uniform, highly adhesive dust layer that is also highly cohesive laterally owing to electrostatic forces. This layer will obscure visibility through the helmet visor, penetrate joints and fabrics, change the thermal properties of the suit, and possibly affect electronic/electrical suit functions. It is paramount that future missions address the issue of interparticle forces, and in particular, the role played by ionizing radiation in affecting these forces on Mars.

Marshall, J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Origin and Reactivity of the Martian Soil: A 2003 Micromission

The role of water in the development of the martian surface remains a fundamental scientific question. Did Mars have one or more "warm and wet" climatic episodes where liquid water was stable at the surface? If so, the mineral phases present in the soils should be consistent with a history of aqueous weathering. More generally, the formation of hydrated mineral phases on Mars is a strong indicator of past habitable surface environments. The primary purpose of this investigation is to help resolve the question of whether such aqueous indicators are present on Mars by probing the upper meter for diagnostic mineral species. According to Burns [1993], the formation of the ferric oxides responsible for the visible color of Mars are the result of dissolution of Fe (+2) phases from basalts followed by aqueous oxidation and precipitation of Fe" mineral assemblages. These precipitates likely included iron oxyhydroxides such as goethite (a-FeOOH) and lepidocrocite (g-FeOOH), but convincing evidence for these phases at the surface is still absent. The stability of these minerals is enhanced beneath the surface, and thus we propose a subsurface search for hydroxylated iron species as a test for a large-scale chemical weathering process based on interactions with liquid water. It is also possible that the ferric minerals on Mars are not aqueous alteration products of the rocks. A chemical study of the Pathfinder landing site concluded that the soils are not directly derived from the surrounding rocks and are enhanced in Mg and Fe. The additional source of these elements might be from other regions of Mars and transported by winds, or alternatively, from exogenic sources. Gibson [1970] proposed that the spectral reflectivity of Mars is consistent with oxidized meteoritic material. Yen and Murray [1998] further extend Gibson's idea and show, in the laboratory, that metallic iron can be readily oxidized to maghemite and hematite under present-day martian surface conditions (in the absence of liquid water). A test for a meteoritic component of the soil can be conducted, as described below, by searching for the presence of Ni at the martian surface. The average abundance of nickel in an Fe-Ni meteorite is about 7% and, if present at measurable levels in the soil, would be indicative of an exogenic contribution. In addition, it may be possible to directly search for mineral phases common in meteorites. An understanding of the formation and evolution of the martian soil would not be complete without addressing the unusual reactivity discovered by the Viking Landers The presence of an inorganic oxidant, possibly one produced as a results of photochemical processes, is the most widely accepted explanation of the Viking results. Are these chemical species simply adsorbed on soil grains, or have they reacted with the metal oxide substrates and altered the mineral structures? Could a completely different (non-photochemical) process be responsible for the soil reactivity? The various ideas for the nature of this putative oxidant could be constrained by a measurement of the change in reactivity with depth. Different compositions will have different lifetimes and mobilities and thus will have different vertical profiles. Because the oxidizing compounds are believed to actively destroy organic molecules, determination of the reactivity gradient also has significant implications for the search for life on Mars. A DS2-based microprobe system can be instrumented for a 2003 micromission to investigate the origin and reactivity of the martian soil. These measurements would provide invaluable information regarding the climate history and exobiological potential of the planet. The NMR, X ray and chemiresistor measurement approach described embodies a highly synergistic and general set of soil interrogation methods for elements, compounds, and crystal structures and can also be applied to other geologic questions of interest. For example, if the capability for precise targeting of the probes is available, then in-situ investigations of suspected evaporite and hydrothermal deposits would be possible with the same set of instruments. Additional information is contained in the original.

Yen, Albert S.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Soil Analysis Micro-Mission Concepts Derived from the MSP 2001 Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA)

The Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA) will evaluate the Martian environment for soil and dust-related hazards to human exploration as part of the Mars Surveyor Program 2001 Lander. The integrated MECA payload contains a wet-chemistry laboratory, a microscopy station, an electrometer to characterize the electrostatic environment, and arrays of material patches to study abrasion and adhesion. Heritage will be all-important for low cost micro-missions, and adaptations of instruments developed for the Pathfinder, '98 and '01 Landers should be strong contenders for '03 flights. This talk has three objectives: (1) Familiarize the audience with MECA instrument capabilities; (2) present concepts for stand-alone and/or mobile versions of MECA instruments; and (3) broaden the context of the MECA instruments from human exploration to a comprehensive scientific survey of Mars. Due to time limitations, emphasis will be on the chemistry and microscopy experiments. Ion-selective electrodes and related sensors in MECA's wet-chemistry laboratory will evaluate total dissolved solids, redox potential, pH, and the concentration of many soluble ions and gases in wet Martian soil. These electrodes can detect potentially dangerous heavy-metal ions, emitted pathogenic gases, and the soil's corrosive potential, and experiments will include cyclic voltammetry and anodic stripping. For experiments beyond 2001, enhancements could allow multiple use of the cells (for mobile experiments) and reagent addition (for quantitative mineralogical and exobiological analysis). MECA's microscopy station combines optical and atomic-force microscopy (AFM) in an actively focused, controlled illumination environment to image particles from millimeters to nanometers in size. Careful selection of substrates allows controlled experiments in adhesion, abrasion, hardness, aggregation, magnetic and other properties. Special tools allow primitive manipulation (brushing and scraping) of samples. Soil particle properties including size, shape, color, hardness, adhesive potential (electrostatic and magnetic), will be determined using an array of sample receptacles and collection substrates. The simple, rugged atomic-force microscope will image in the submicron size range and has the capability of performing a particle-by-particle analysis of the dust and soil. Future implementations might enhance the optical microscopy with spectroscopy, or incorporate advanced AFM techniques for thermogravimetric and chemical analysis.

Hecht, M. H.↗