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DOE OSTI2021

Policy and Regulatory Environment for Utility-Scale Energy Storage: Bangladesh

Bangladesh has experienced significant economic growth and poverty reduction over the past several decades. Recognizing the central role electricity plays in economic development, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has established policies to accelerate the growth of the electric power sector. The Bangladesh power grid is transforming into one marked by declining reliance on domestic natural gas reserves and oil-based rental power plants, increasing renewable energy contribution, and shifting demand patterns. The GOB is now reconsidering its prior plans to increase the share of coal capacity in the generation mix to meet demand, shifting its focus instead to electricity imports from neighboring countries, nuclear generation, liquified natural gas imports, and domestic renewable resources such as wind and solar. However, investments in the transmission and distribution system, as well as ancillary services, have not kept pace with investments in generation resources over the past decade. Thus, Bangladesh electricity consumers still experience outages and poor power quality despite adequate installed capacity. On the demand side, population growth and industrialization have fueled steady growth in electricity consumption as efforts to expand access to electricity enabled near-universal electricity access by mid-2020. The combined changes in the mix of generation resources and patterns of electricity demand present new challenges and opportunities in operating and maintaining a reliable power system. Energy storage has the potential to help meet these challenges and accelerate Bangladesh’s energy transition. Declining costs for some energy storage technologies make them increasingly cost-effective solutions to provide a wide range of grid services. Previous analyses of energy storage in the region have identified several potential applications for storage at the bulk system level, including energy arbitrage, ancillary services, and transmission network support. The potential for storage to meet these needs depends on many factors, including physical characteristics of the power system and the policy and regulatory environments in which these energy storage assets would operate. This report applies an Energy Storage Readiness Assessment the National Renewable Energy Laboratory developed for policy makers and regulators to identify priority areas of focus as they continue to develop the appropriate suite of policies, programs, and regulations to enable storage deployment. This assessment uses a simple evaluation scheme to identify the barriers and opportunities for utility-scale energy storage within Bangladesh’s policy and regulatory environment.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Impact of Salinity on Ground Ice Distribution Across an Arctic Coastal Polygonal Tundra Environment

The heterogeneous distribution of ground ice in the Arctic is a key driver of uneven ground subsidence as permafrost thaws, significantly impacting infrastructure and surface/subsurface hydrology. These topographic and hydrological changes contribute to major uncertainties in energy and carbon fluxes and storage in a warming Arctic. This study aims to improve our understanding of the controls on ground ice and organic matter distribution within the top 3 m of permafrost in coastal polygonal tundra near Utqiagvik, Alaska. To this end, we apply a neural network approach to bulk density distributions derived from nondestructive X-ray tomography of soil cores, trained with laboratory analyses, to improve the resolution and spatial coverage of estimates of dry bulk density, ice content, and organic matter content. In addition, we use capacitively coupled geophysical imaging to map soil electrical conductivity and salinity variations. The results show that sedimentary deposits from ocean transgressions, along with subsequent ice wedge polygon geomorphological processes, jointly influence the distribution of ice content at various scales. The impact of the latter decreases with depth, whereas the influence of salinity and sedimentary history increases. Although the controls on the distribution of soil organic matter content (g/cm 3 ) remain unclear, the pronounced heterogeneity in bulk density strongly influences its calculation from laboratory mass fraction measurements (g/g). From a methodological perspective, the interdependencies among soil components and the need for increased data coverage underscore the value of high-resolution density measurements, such as using X-ray tomography. Overall, this study emphasizes the importance of considering salinity constraints on ice content distribution in coastal permafrost regions. The results are expected to aid in the development of data products and process representations in geomorphological and ecosystem models.

Dafflon, Baptiste [Lawrence Berkeley National Labo↗
DOE OSTI2022

Grid Value Analysis of Medium-Voltage Back-to-Back Converter on DER Hosting Enhancement

This paper presents an analysis of the value that can be realized by medium-voltage back-to-back (MVB2B) converters in terms of the increased utilization rate of distributed energy resources (DERs) and the improvement in operational conditions. A systematic, transferrable, and scalable methodology has been designed to analyze and quantify the increased DER value from three perspectives: 1) curtailment reduction of the DER generation, 2) size reduction of the energy storage needed to otherwise realize DER hosting levels, and 3) hosting capacity improvement of the DERs compared to the base distribution circuit capability. In the case study, the proposed methodology is applied to two utility distribution systems for analysis and quantification of the grid value of the MVB2B converter, installed in the distribution circuit, and provided to the solar photovoltaic (PV) DERs. Here, the analysis results demonstrate that the MVB2B converter can deliver significant value to the PV hosting enhancement of two adjacent distribution systems when they are connected by the MVB2B converter. Based on this case study, this paper analyzes and summarizes the approximate realized grid value of the MVB2B converter for distribution systems dominated by different shares of customer classes.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Rosario Strait Tidal Energy plus Energy Storage — Preliminary Economic Assessment

The Orcas Power and Light Co-op (OPALCO) is a non-profit utility that provides energy services to approximately 11,700 customers across 20 islands in San Juan County, Washington. OPALCO is developing a diverse set of local renewable energy resources to reduce dependence on mainland Washington State for energy and to reduce the regional need for fossil-fueled power. OPALCO’s load doubles in winter but solar production is roughly 20% of levels reached in summer periods. Tidal energy is strong year-round, night and day, and is predictable, requiring much less storage to firm it. To assess the technical and economic feasibility of tidal power, working in combination with multiple other distributed energy resources (DERs), Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne) employed an optimization model to evaluate several economic benefits associated with varying scales of tidal power of between 2.4 and 9.6 megawatts (MW) and other DERs. In addition to existing photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage system (BESS) resources located on Decatur Island, Argonne also evaluated the addition of a BESS on southern Orcas Island with power and energy capacities ranging from 1-4 MW and 2-4 hours in storage duration.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Hydrogen storage in liquid hydrogen carriers: recent activities and new trends

Abstract Efficient storage of hydrogen is one of the biggest challenges towards a potential hydrogen economy. Hydrogen storage in liquid carriers is an attractive alternative to compression or liquefaction at low temperatures. Liquid carriers can be stored cost-effectively and transportation and distribution can be integrated into existing infrastructures. The development of efficient liquid carriers is part of the work of the International Energy Agency Task 40: Hydrogen-Based Energy Storage. Here, we report the state-of-the-art for ammonia and closed CO 2 -cycle methanol-based storage options as well for liquid organic hydrogen carriers.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2020

Solar+ Optimizer: A Model Predictive Control Optimization Platform for Grid Responsive Building Microgrids

With the falling costs of solar arrays and battery storage and reduced reliability of the grid due to natural disasters, small-scale local generation and storage resources are beginning to proliferate. However, very few software options exist for integrated control of building loads, batteries and other distributed energy resources. The available software solutions on the market can force customers to adopt one particular ecosystem of products, thus limiting consumer choice, and are often incapable of operating independently of the grid during blackouts. In this paper, we present the “Solar+ Optimizer” (SPO), a control platform that provides demand flexibility, resiliency and reduced utility bills, built using open-source software. SPO employs Model Predictive Control (MPC) to produce real time optimal control strategies for the building loads and the distributed energy resources on site. SPO is designed to be vendor-agnostic, protocol-independent and resilient to loss of wide-area network connectivity. The software was evaluated in a real convenience store in northern California with on-site solar generation, battery storage and control of HVAC and commercial refrigeration loads. Preliminary tests showed price responsiveness of the building and cost savings of more than 10% in energy costs alone.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Grid-Connected Modular Soft-Switching Solid State Transformers (M-S4T)

The objective of this project is to develop and verify the concept of a flexible and modular soft-switching solid-state transformer (M-S4T) for direct grid-connected applications. The ability to directly connect power electronics converters to the medium voltage grid (4 kV – 13 kV), and to potentially replace the passive and bulky, but ubiquitous 60 hertz service transformer in the 25 kVA to 100 kVA range, with a more flexible and controllable device, has been regarded as the ‘holy grail’ in grid control. However, this has proven to be extremely difficult. This project has developed the solutions to several key challenges of the direct grid-connected power electronics and realized a 7.2 kV M-S4T prototype. First, a protection method to protect the M-S4T from the high voltages (110 kV for the 13 kV system) that occur on the grid due to transients and lightning strikes have been developed and experimentally verified. Second, the realization and the operation of the M-S4T based on high-voltage SiC devices (>3.3 kV) and a medium-frequency medium-voltage low-leakage transformer in a single-stage solid-state transformer with zero-voltage switching, low dv/dt, and low electromagnetic interference has been successfully demonstrated up to 7.5 kV peak. Third, an oil-cooling system and stable communication and distributed control system for converter module voltage sharing have been developed and experimentally verified. The developed M-S4T has realized a modular universal high-performance power conversion system. This conversion system is scalable to different voltage and power levels and adaptable to four-quadrant bidirectional operation. Moreover, the use of passive cooling techniques meets the equipment life requirements, and the lightning protection scheme fulfills the basic insulation level specifications for direct grid connection. Such power conversion system opens up near-term opportunities, including energy storage, solar PV, or electric vehicle charging with significant cost and footprint savings. In the longer term, the possibility of replacing the utility distribution transformer with an M-S4T will be transformative for future distribution grids with a compact footprint and full controllability to enable high renewable energy and storage penetration. In addition to the main project, this report expands on the Plus-Up projected including as part of the main award. This project developed and demonstrated the technology for autonomous collaborative inverters that can be connected in an ad hoc manner to the grid. The aim of the project was to: (1) evaluate the existing techniques for grid-connected inverters and find their limitations; (2) develop detailed requirements for grid-connected inverters in the modern grid with millions of active nodes; (3) design a unified control strategy that brings more autonomy and intelligence to grid-connected inverters, and addresses parts of the issues with the existing techniques. The proposed technique, called UniCon, enables inverters to 1) connect/disconnect to/from the grid in an ad hoc manner; (2) work based on local sensing. Slow communication could be used for a more optimized behavior; (3) work automatically in both grid-forming/grid-following mode; (4) handle large disturbances, e.g., big load step and fault, in an oscillation-free manner; (5) work collaboratively with other inverters in steady-state and during transients. UniCon can be implemented in the middle-level control; hence it is agnostic to the vendor and to the implementation of the inner voltage/current and protection loops. Furthermore, a new synchronization scheme, based on deep learning, was developed that can extract the grid voltage phase and amplitude in a stable manner. The method is cheap to implement can improve the dynamic performance of the grid-connected inverters during fast transients, e.g., fault. The proposed control scheme was validated by (1) MATLAB/Simulink; (2) hardware-in-the-loop results, and; (3) experimental results using three inverters that form a microgrid in a down-scaled feeder. Lastly, both the M-S4T and UniCon have achieved promising tangible paths to markets. In the case of the M-S4T, the underlying technology — the Soft Switching Solid State Transformer (S4T) developed at the Georgia Tech Center for Distributed Energy (GT-CDE) has been licensed by GridBlock from the Georgia Tech Research Corporation, and GridBlock has been working with manufacturing partner Jabil (one of the largest US-based contract manufacturers) and system integrator Power Secure (largest deployer of microgrids in the US with 4.7 GW under management), to meet the strong initial demand. Similarly, GridBlock has an exclusive license to the UniCon technology, developed under this award by GT-CDE. The UniCon provides an intermediate control layer that enables the implementation of the higher-level ‘transactive’ control commands for the system. The architecture of the system - slow communications with the cloud for system optimization and setpoints, and the use of locally measured quantities for real-time control, provide a very robust and secure way of implementing a real-time must-run grid that is also secure and stable. This is a brand-new functionality that is critical for the future grid and key to GridBlock’s business model.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Impact of Pressure-Dependent Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle on Capillary Heterogeneity Trapping of CO2 in Storage Aquifers

Summary Carbon dioxide (CO2) capillary trapping increases the total amount of CO2 that can be effectively immobilized in storage aquifers. This trapping, manifesting itself as accumulated CO2 columns at a continuum scale, is because of capillary threshold effects that occur below low-permeability barriers. Considering that capillary pressure is dictated by heterogeneous pore throat size, the trapped CO2 column height and associated CO2 saturation will vary spatially within a storage aquifer. This variation will be influenced by two pressure-dependent interfacial parameters—CO2/brine interfacial tension (IFT) and CO2/brine/rock contact angle. Our objective is to understand how the pressure dependence of these two parameters affects the heterogeneity of capillary trapped CO2 at a continuum scale. Our conceptual model is a 1D two-zone system with the upper zone being a flow barrier (low permeability) and the lower zone being a flow path (high permeability). The inputs to this model include microfacies-dependent capillary pressure vs. saturation curves and permeability values. The input capillary pressure curves were collected in the literature that represents carbonate microfacies (e.g., dolograinstone) in a prevalent formation in the Permian Basin. We then used the Leverett j-function to scale the capillary pressure curve for the two zones that are assigned with the same or different microfacies. During scaling, we considered the influence of pressure on both the IFT and contact angle of CO2/brine/dolomite systems. We varied the zone permeability contrast ratio from 2 to 50. We then assumed capillary gravity equilibriums and calculated the CO2 saturation buildup corresponding to various trapped CO2 column heights. The CO2 saturation buildup is defined as the CO2 saturation in the lower layer minus that in the upper one. We found that the saturation buildup can be doubled when varying pressure in a storage aquifer, after considering pressure-dependent IFT and contact angles. Thus, assuming these two parameters to be constant across such aquifers would cause large errors in the quantification of capillary trapping of CO2. The whole study demonstrates the importance of considering pressure-dependent interfacial properties in predicting the vertical distribution of capillary trapped CO2. It has important implications in developing a better understanding of leakage risks and consequent storage safety.

Engineering↗
DOE OSTI2022

SIW21-95: Hybridizing Synchronous Condensers with Grid-Forming Battery Energy Storage Systems

One of the main challenges associated with deployment of high shares of inverter-based resources (IBRs) in power grid is not only reduced system inertia but also degrading system strength that may cause severe stability impacts. A minimum level of system strength is needed for the power system to remain stable under normal conditions and to return to a steady state condition following a system disturbance. Significant system strength reduction is expected in almost all planned areas for solar and wind generation deployment. Synchronous condensers (SC) have been considered as one main technology to address the system strength issues for the areas with high levels of IBRs. SCs can help improving reliability and resiliency of power system but they do not provide the full range of services needed by power systems for reliable and economic integration of high shares of inverter-coupled variable generation such as PV generation. Services related to active power controls cannot be provided by SCs due to lack of prime mover. Even for provision of reactive power SCs have certain constraints based on their thermal and stability limits. NREL has been conducting research on a hybridized concept that combines SCs with grid forming (GFM) battery energy storage systems (BESS). This super flexible AC transmission system (SuperFACTS) that combines these two technologies in a single plant under the same controller offers a unique scalable set of services to the power system at all levels (transmission, sub-transmission, distribution, islands and isolated microgrids). Depending on use cases, SuperFACTS can be controlled to provide fully dispatchable and flexible operation using energy storage component, provide a full range of existing and future ancillary and reliability services to the grid (similar or better than conventional sources), maintain adequate levels of grid strength and inertia, and provide fault current for proper operation of protection systems. Therefore, this economic and easy to commercialize solution has potential for significant impacts on certain segments of global energy sector. All types of gird services (market based, reliability and resiliency) can be provided by SuperFACTS plants. GFM BESS can act as a self-black start source for each SuperFACTS module, which in turn can act a black start resource for co-located PV and wind power plants, segments of transmission and distribution networks, for conventional power plants, etc. The issue of in-rush currents during black start is addressed by overcurrent capability of SCs. In this paper we describe the results of modeling for SuperFACTS concept.

grid forming↗
DOE OSTI2024

Interoperable, Inverter-Based Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) Enable 100% Renewable and Resilient Utility Microgrids

Project overcomes frequency stability and system control issues when operating distribution microgrids in a low inertia, high PV penetration environment without fossil fuel generators. The team implemented a grid-forming inverter and advanced control features at SDG&E's Borrego Springs Microgrid to demonstrate islanding and blackstart using renewable resources. Simulation and emulation in advance of deployment de-risks field operations.

battery energy storage systems↗
DOE OSTI2021

On-Sun Testing of a High-Temperature Solar Receiver's Flux Distribution

Concentrated solar power (CSP) is a promising technology in transitioning to renewable energy because of its abundance in nature and thermal energy storage (TES) capability. Among the four types of available CSP technology, including parabolic trough, linear Fresnel, power tower, and parabolic dishes, a power tower using a central receiver has more potential to generate high-temperature heat in a scale supporting power cycles efficiency and achieve low levelized cost of energy (LCOE). Other than the conventional type of receiver design, the high-absorptive receiver concept developed and presented in this paper is novel in its design approach. The novel receiver design originated from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) consists of an array of solar flux absorb tubes. The solar absorb tubes require uniform flux distribution and in-depth flux penetration through the three different reflective sections of tubes in a hexagonal shape. To evaluate this unique receiver design and thermal performance, the flux distribution, flux uniformity, and intensity were numerically simulated using ansys fluent and SolTrace modeling program. On-sun testing has been done at NREL high flux solar testing facility, based on the computational analysis.

clean energy↗
DOE OSTI2021

Thermal Energy Distribution System (TEDS) Startup

The thermal energy distribution system was started to demonstrate preliminary system operability. Some construction and warranty repairs remain before the system can be fully tested and certified for operation.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Demonstration of a modeling toolkit for the design of building electrical distribution systems

The deployment of building equipment (e.g., lighting, security) and miscellaneous electrical loads that fundamentally require DC power for operation is increasing. Powering these DC loads has traditionally required an AC/DC converter, but the installation of photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage systems that primarily produce DC power eliminates the need for AC/DC converters at each end-device. However, analyzing system energy efficiency and cost for different electrical distribution architectures can be challenging as software tools that support this are not readily available. This paper presents preliminary results from a laboratory verification of the Building Electrical Efficiency Analysis Model (BEEAM) toolkit that was developed to address this gap. Three different eight-luminaire lighting systems comprised of market-available products were designed and modeled: one that used traditional AC distribution, a second that used a hybrid AC -to- centralized DC electrical distribution architecture, and a third that used a hybrid AC -to- distributed DC architecture. Notably, AC/DC conversions are required in all three systems. BEEAM models for LED drivers as well as Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) switches were created using laboratory characterization data. The lighting systems were simulated in Modelica, and the results were compared with each other and physics-based expectations. Simulation results show that PoE system energy efficiency is highly dependent on both device specification (e.g., LED driver and PoE switch efficiency) and system architecture (e.g., PoE switch loading) choices, as expected. For the products and system architectures selected for this study, the two DC systems were found to be less efficient than the AC system over the course of typical operation. In future work, simulation results will be compared with laboratory measurements to validate the usefulness of this software for design, and lighting systems with integrated PV and battery energy storage will be simulated to quantify the energy performance improvements that result from the elimination of some AC/DC converters.

Waghale, Anay S.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Rolling Optimization of Transmission Network Recovery and Load Restoration Considering Hybrid Wind-Storage System and Cold Load Pickup

A common solution to deal with the stochasticity introduced by fast-ramping wind power integration is to equip wind farms (WFs) with energy storage systems (ESSs) to formulate hybrid WF-ESSs. In addition to leveling off wind power fluctuations during normal operations, a hybrid WF-ESS can be a flexible power source to accumulate the power system restoration. In this paper, we propose a rolling optimization model for transmission network recovery and load restoration considering the contributions of WF-ESSs. The proposed model is formulated as a mixed integer linear programming problem that simultaneously optimizes the amount and location of restorable load blocks as well as the restoration lines. The cold load pickup features of interrupted loads considering the outage duration are modeled in detail. A chance-constrained method is employed to deal with the uncertainty of wind power, and a rolling horizon-based framework is adopted to reduce the influence of forecast error. Case studies are conducted on both New England 39-bus system and part of a provincial power system in China. The results show that the load restoration process can be significantly accelerated by employing the proposed method and contributions of hybrid WF-ESSs to power system restoration are validated.

chance-constrained optimization↗
DOE OSTI2026

Atomic-Scale Imaging of Lithium Vacancies in a Battery Cathode by Multislice Electron Ptychography

Atomic-resolution imaging of battery materials is critical for identification of local defects and structural variations, which are tied to battery performance. However, since battery materials are, by design, optimized to allow ion motion in response to an applied electric field, they are also very sensitive to radiation damage by an electron beam. Image resolution is therefore severely constrained by the dose applied. Here, we show that multislice electron ptychography (MEP) can provide sub-ångström lateral resolution images of both light and heavy elements of a Li-ion battery cathode, along with nanometer-scale depth information and greater dose efficiency than conventional electron microscopy methods. Using the depth-sectioning capability of MEP, we have been able to obtain direct visualizations of Li vacancy clusters, atom column by atom column, in Li x Ni 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.33 O 2 (NMC111) cathodes. This capability to track Li distributions will be valuable in understanding, informing, and optimizing electrode material design for ion storage and transfer.

batteries↗
DOE OSTI2021

Methane Hydrate Formation and Evolution During Sedimentation

We explored methane hydrate formation with sedimentation with a newly developed one-dimensional, multiphase flow, multicomponent transport numerical model. Our model couples methane hydrate formation from in situ microbial methane generation within the hydrate stability zone (HSZ), methane recycling, and microbial methane generation below the base of the hydrate stability zone (BHSZ). Both recycled methane and deeply generated methane are transported into the HSZ by buoyancy-driven free gas flow. Free gas flows through the HSZ by both the processes of capillary-dependent pore fillings and by salt exclusion during hydrate formation, with the former being the dominant mechanism. We quantitively illustrated the formation of enriched hydrate in muddy sediments above, and interconnected free gas below, the BHSZ, which are common features along the world's continental margin. In addition, we showed two ways to form concentrated methane hydrate above the BHSZ. The first mechanism is local free gas flow during methane recycling. This happens at sites with sufficient methane generation above the BHSZ. The second mechanism is deep microbial methane generation which is transported into the HSZ by free gas flow. This mechanism plays a more important role at sites with high sedimentation rates. This study provides new insights into methane hydrate formation and distribution below the seafloor. It is important for understanding the carbon cycle and carbon storage below the seafloor and for resource evaluation and exploitation.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Pressure cells for in situ neutron total scattering: time and real-space resolution during deuterium absorption

In situ gas-loading sample holders for two-dimensionally arranged detectors in time-of-flight neutron total scattering experiments have been developed to investigate atomic arrangements during deuterium absorption using time and real-space resolution. A single-crystal sapphire container was developed that allows conditions of 473 K and 10 MPa hydrogen gas pressure. High-resolution transient measurements detected deuterium absorption by palladium that proceeded within a few seconds. A double-layered container with thick- and thin-walled vanadium allowed conditions of 423 K and 10 MPa hydrogen gas pressure. The deuterium occupation sites of a lanthanum–nickel–aluminium alloy are discussed in detail on the basis of real-space high-resolution data obtained from in situ neutron scattering measurements and reverse Monte Carlo structural modeling.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Grid Regulation With Gravity Storage Systems: A Comparative Analysis With Different Motor Inertias

The integration of renewable energy sources into power grids necessitates solutions for grid support and stability during fluctuations in electricity generation and demand. Gravity energy storage systems (GESS) are emerging as a promising technology for managing the balance between energy supply and demand. However, their capacity to optimize energy flow and offer voltage and frequency regulation amid imbalances in generation and demand is less reported. This paper investigates the control of GESS for optimizing energy flow during voltage and frequency regulation. The study evaluates the regulation capabilities of GESS with different motor inertias during a Texas grid event: one with a high-speed, low-inertia motor and another with a low-speed, high-inertia motor. Results indicate that both GESS scenarios provide fast frequency response by converting potential energy into kinetic energy and vice versa, with a response time of 1.5 s from the frequency variation. This aligns with grid requirements for primary frequency response from traditional synchronous generators and motors with large inertia. Furthermore, a GESS based on a high-inertia motor may be able to operate over a broader range of frequency variations, whereas a low-inertia system may be limited by thermal constraints of the motor.

frequency regulation↗