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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 901 records · Page 50
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Curing the Divergence in Time-Dependent Density Functional Quadratic Response Theory

While time-dependent density functional theory has emerged as a method of choice for computing electronic spectra and response of molecules and materials, its reliability is hindered by the adiabatic approximation that is commonly made. In this work, we address one problematic aspect that arises from this approximation: an incorrect pole structure in the quadratic response function, leading to unphysical divergences in excited state-to-state transition probabilities and hyperpolarizabilties. We find the form of the exact quadratic response kernel and derive a practical and accurate approximation that cures the divergence. Here, we demonstrate our results on excited state-to-state transition probabilities of a model system and of the LiH molecule.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Correlation of Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) force myography sensor output with elbow joint torque

Accurate assessment of skeletal muscle forces and net joint torque is essential for preventing fatigue-related injuries, optimizing physical training, and monitoring disease progression in neuromuscular conditions. However, existing joint torque evaluation techniques are hindered by limited portability and high operational costs, confining their use to controlled laboratory or clinical settings. Despite substantial advances in wearable joint torque estimation systems, ongoing challenges such as power constraints, bulky wired setups, and susceptibility to environmental or motion artifacts underscore the urgent need for truly batteryless, wireless solutions deployable in real-world settings. This paper proposes a novel surface acoustic wave (SAW)-based force myography (FMG) system for noninvasive measurement of joint torque, validated against a gold-standard electromechanical dynamometer. The approach uses a single SAW sensor embedded in an armband to detect volumetric biceps brachii changes, with a second-order polynomial mapping sensor output and elbow angle to torque. Seven participants were tested in both isometric (15°–90°) and isokinetic (10°/s and 20°/s) supinated elbow flexion tasks. Under isometric conditions, subject-specific calibration achieved a normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE) of 13.6% ± 6.0% and R 2 = 0.834 ± 0.180, while a group-level model yielded 14.4% ± 6.8% and 0.808 ± 0.208, respectively. For isokinetic trials, the group model produced an NRMSE of 24.1% ± 6.6% at 10°/s and 24.9% ± 08.9% at 20°/s, highlighting the feasibility of using a single-sensor SAW-FMG setup across different speeds. Because SAW devices support wireless, battery-free operation, the proposed system offers a pathway to portable, real-time monitoring for sports medicine, rehabilitation, and clinical diagnostics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Electron-doping-induced destabilization of the dimerized insulating state in monolayer IrTe 2

The ability to tune the electronic phases of two-dimensional (2D) materials through external perturbations provides a powerful route to engineer functional nanoscale systems. In particular, the ground state of monolayer (ML) 1T-IrTe 2 is highly sensitive to the interplay between local chemical bonding and global electronic topology, leading to a unique 2 × 1 dimerized insulating phase. Here, we present an angle-resolved photoemission study on the evolution of the electronic structure in ML IrTe 2 induced by in situ Rb adsorption. We find that Rb adsorption suppresses the 2 × 1 dimerized phase in ML IrTe 2 , inducing a clear insulator-to-metal transition. This transition is characterized by a reconstruction of the band topology toward a bilayer-like metallic configuration. Combined with first-principles calculations, our results demonstrate that the collapse of the insulating state originates from Ir valence change and suppression of Fermi surface nesting-driven instabilities. Our findings establish ML IrTe 2 as a model system for investigating instability-driven phase control in 2D materials and highlight its potential for tunable electronic applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electronic states dressed by an out-of-plane supermodulation in the quasi-two-dimensional kagome superconductor CsV 3 Sb 5

CsV 3 Sb 5 has attracted much recent attention as the first quasi-two-dimensional (2D) kagome superconductor. While the kagome layers are 2D in nature, increasing evidence has pointed to the importance of out-of-plane correlation in this material. However, it remains unclear whether such correlation can change the fundamental electronic structure of the quasi-2D system. Here, we reveal this missing piece of information, using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy, complemented by scanning tunneling microscope measurements. The three-dimensional electronic structures in the high-temperature state are revealed, which agree well with density-functional theory calculations. Electron energy bands are observed in the low-temperature state that exhibit additional periodicities along the out-of-plane momentum. Furthermore, these results reveal a direct response to the out-of-plane electronic supermodulation in the single-particle spectral function of CsV 3 Sb 5 , thus establishing an electronic platform to examine emergent phenomena beyond 2D limit in kagome superconductors.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2020

Potential Control of Oxygen Non-Stoichiometry in Cerium Oxide and Phase Transition Away from Equilibrium

Cerium oxide (ceria, CeO 2 ) is a technologically important material for energy conversion applications. Its activities strongly depend on redox states and oxygen vacancy concentration. Understanding the functionality of chemical active species and behavior of oxygen vacancy during operation, especially in high-temperature solid-state electrochemical cells, is the key to advance future material design. Herein, the structure evolution of ceria is spatially resolved using bulk-sensitive operando X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy techniques. During water electrolysis, ceria undergoes reduction, and its oxygen non-stoichiometry shows a dependence on the electrochemical current. Cerium local bonding environments vary concurrently to accommodate oxygen vacancy formation, resulting in changes in Ce-O coordination number and Ce 3+ /Ce 4+ redox couple. When reduced enough, a crystallographic phase transition occurs from α to an α' phase with more oxygen vacancies. Nevertheless, the transition behavior is intriguingly different from the one predicted in the standard phase diagram of ceria. This work demonstrates a feasible means to control oxygen non-stoichiometry in ceria via electrochemical potential. It also sheds light on the mechanism of phase transitions induced by electrochemical potential. For electrochemical systems, effects from a large-scale electrical environment should be taken into consideration, besides effective oxygen partial pressure and temperature.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Giant Modulation of Magnetoresistance in a Van Der Waals Magnet by In‐Plane Current Injection

Efficient magnetization control is a central issue in magnetism and spintronics. Particularly, there are increasing demands for manipulation of magnetic states in van der Waals (vdW) magnets with unconventional functionalities. However, the electrically induced phase transition between ferromagnetic-to-antiferromagnetic states without external magnetic field is yet to be demonstrated. Here, the current-induced magnetic phase transition in a vdW ferromagnet Fe 5 GeTe 2 is reported. Based on magneto-transport measurements and theoretical analysis, it is demonstrated that transition in the interlayer magnetic coupling occurs through vertical voltage drop between layers induced by current which is attributed to high anisotropy of the resistivity caused by the vdW gaps. Such magnetic phase transition results in giant modulation of the longitudinal magnetoresistance from 5% to 170%. The electrical tunability of the magnetic phase in Fe 5 GeTe 2 with current-in-plane geometry opens a path for electric control of magnetic properties, expanding the ability to use vdW magnets for spintronic applications.

2D magnet↗
DOE OSTI2022

Mechanical Properties of Functionally Graded Concrete Lining for Deep Underground Structures

With the mining depth of coal resources increasing, the thickness of traditional lining for deep mines becomes large. The bearing capacity of the outer lining cannot be fully utilized, so a new type of functionally graded lining structure (FGL) with radial Young’s modulus varying in gradient is proposed. In this study, through theoretical analysis and numerical simulation, the mechanical properties of the functionally graded lining were studied, including the characteristics of the elastic working state and the ultimate bearing state. The influences of the structural parameters of the functionally graded lining, including the inner radius, the thickness, Young’s modulus, the compressive strength of the concrete, Poisson’s ratio, and the number of layers on the mechanical properties were analyzed. The calculation formula of the ultimate bearing capacity of the lining and the calculation formula of the maximum tangential strain at the time of lining failure were put forward. The accuracy of the formula was verified by comparing with the numerical simulation results. The research results provide the basis for the construction of the design theory of a functionally graded lining structure and have great engineering significance for the construction of the kilometer-deep mines in the future.

Li, De-Chun↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thermodynamics of Metal Carbonates and Bicarbonates and Their Hydrates for Mg, Ca, Fe, and Cd Relevant to Mineral Energetics

The heats of formation of carbonate, bicarbonate and bicarbonate/hydroxide metal complexes and hydrated versions these complexes of Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Fe 2+ , and Cd 2+ are predicted from atomization energies using correlated molecular orbital theory at the CCSD(T) level extrapolated to the complete basis set limit following the Feller-Peterson-Dixon (FPD) approach. Using the calculated gas phase values and the available experimental solid state values, the cohesive energies of selected minerals were calculated. The gas phase decomposition energies into MO, CO 2 and H 2 O follow the order Mg ~ Ca > Cd ~ Fe, and correlate with the hardness of the metal +2 ions. Gas phase hydration energies show that the order is Mg > Fe > Ca ~ Cd. There are a number of bulk hydrated Mg and Ca complexes that occur as minerals but there are few if any for Fe and Cd, suggesting that a number of factors are important in determining the stability of the bulk mineral hydrates. The FPD heats of formation were used to benchmark a range of density functional theory exchange-correlation functionals, including those commonly used in solid state mineral calculations. None of the functionals provided chemical accuracy agreement (± 1 kcal/mol) with the FPD results The best functionals are ωB97X and ωB97X-D with mean average unsigned errors of 10 kcal/mol.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

The development of natural gas and hydrogen pipeline capital cost estimating equations

Natural gas pipeline cost data collected by the Oil and Gas Journal (O&GJ) for interstate pipelines constructed from 1980 through 2017 were used to develop capital cost estimating equations that are a function of pipeline diameter, length, and U.S. region. Equations were developed for material, labor, miscellaneous, and right-of-way costs, the four cost components in the O&GJ data, for six different regions of the United States (U.S.). Each equation is a function of pipeline diameter and length. Adjustment mechanisms were then developed for converting the natural gas pipeline equations into equations for estimating the costs of hydrogen pipelines. These adjustments were based in part on an analysis completed by the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). Here the results of this work were used to update cost models in the Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model (HDSAM), developed by Argonne National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Hydrogen Program. Our analysis shows a wide range of pipeline cost across different U.S. regions, especially with respect to labor and right-of-way costs. The developed cost formulas for hydrogen pipelines are both important and timely as hydrogen is being considered as a zero-carbon energy carrier with the potential to decarbonize all energy sectors, and the cost of hydrogen transportation is essential for techno-economic analysis of its potential use in these sectors.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Critical role of magnetic moments in heavy-fermion materials: Revisiting mysteries of SmB 6

Heavy-fermion family exhibits fascinating and often puzzling properties due to the presence of open-shell f ions and the complexity of the associated charge, orbital, and spin degrees of freedom. SmB 6 is a prototypical heavy-fermion compound that is electrically insulating but yet it displays quantum oscillations, which are a telltale signature of the metallic state. Adding to the enigma is the possibility that SmB 6 is a topological Kondo insulator. Here, by treating the spin degree of freedom on an equal footing with other degrees of freedom using the parameter-free strongly-constrained and appropriately-normed (SCAN) density functional, we explore the ground-state electronic structure of SmB6. A number of competing magnetic phases lying very closely in energy are found, indicating the key role of spin fluctuations in the material. The computed band structure, crystal-field splittings in the f-electron complex, the heavy effective electron mass at the Fermi energy, and the large specific heat are all in good agreement with the corresponding experimental results. In particular, our predicted FS explains the experimentally observed bulk quantum oscillations as well as the low electrical conductivity of SmB 6 . The topological Kondo state of SmB6 is shown to be robust regardless of its magnetic configuration. The excellent performance of SCAN in heavy-fermion systems is explained in terms of its ability to treat self-interaction errors and symmetry breaking within the framework of the density functional theory. Our study provides a new approach for modeling heavy-fermion materials

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Symmetry Breaking with the SCAN Density Functional Describes Strong Correlation in the Singlet Carbon Dimer

The SCAN (strongly constrained and appropriately normed) meta-generalized gradient approximation (meta-GGA), which satisfies all 17 exact constraints that a meta-GGA can satisfy, accurately describes equilibrium bonds that are normally correlated. With symmetry breaking, it also accurately describes some sd equilibrium bonds that are strongly correlated. While sp equilibrium bonds are nearly always normally correlated, the C 2 singlet ground state is known from correlated wave function theory to be a rare case of strong correlation in an sp equilibrium bond. Earlier work that calculated atomization energies of the molecular sequence B 2 , C 2 , O 2 , and F 2 in the local spin density approximation (LSDA), the Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof (PBE) GGA, and the SCAN meta-GGA, without symmetry breaking in the molecule, found that only SCAN was accurate enough to reveal an anomalous under-binding for C 2 . Here, this work shows that spin symmetry breaking in singlet C 2 , which involves the appearance of net up- and down-spin densities on opposite sides (not ends) of the bond, corrects that underbinding, with a small SCAN atomization-energy error more like that of the other three molecules, suggesting that symmetry breaking with an advanced density functional might reliably describe strong correlation. This article also discusses some general aspects of symmetry breaking and the insights into strong correlation that symmetry breaking can bring. The normally correlated low-lying triplet excited state has the right vertical excitation energy in SCAN but not in LSDA or PBE, where the triplet is a false ground state. Fractional occupation numbers are found only for the symmetry-unbroken singlet and only in LSDA and PBE GGA.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Conversion of CO 2 from power plant into CaCO 3 nanoparticles

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), a main composition of flue gas, represents a significant and largely untapped carbon resource. Herein, mediated by glycine (Gly), we captured and converted CO 2 into CaCO 3 nanoparticles using real flue gas from a power plant, demonstrating for the first time the feasibility of using amino acid to convert CO 2 from power plant flue gasses. The method did not require extraneous energy and CaCO 3 nanoparticles with a size of ∼25 nm were obtained. Moreover, the potential toxicity of CO 2 -converted nanoparticles was investigated. It appeared that both the initial CO 2 loading and the carbamate percentage significantly influence the shape and size of the CaCO 3 particles. Our method was also proven effective for flue gas with varying CO 2 concentrations (4 %, 12 %, and 20 %). By tuning flue gas bubbling time and flow rate to achieve consistent CO 2 loading and carbamate levels, we produced CaCO 3 nanoparticles with similar shapes and sizes across all CO 2 concentrations studied. In addition, our data indicated that although real flue gas contains small amounts of gases like oxygen and CO, they insignificantly influence the shape and size of our nanoparticles but did impact the phase component of CaCO 3 . In conclusion, the toxicity experiments found that CaCO 3 nanoparticles produced from both real flue gas and simulated flue gas exhibited concentration- and time-dependent effects on cell viability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Characterization of Electronic Stress-Induced Changes in Multilayer MoS 2

Transition metal dichalcogenides like molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) are compelling for next-generation electronic devices. In this work, we investigate the impact of electronic stress on MoS 2 to illustrate that observational and phenomenological information on multiple devices can be useful to describe changes in the device, and caution against the rationalization of paltry results as representative or correlative to device behavior. Here, we stress MoS 2 by applying a sustained 20 V DC bias to study the material’s response. Post-stress electronic characterization revealed nonuniform shifts in current–voltage (I–V) behavior alongside microscale changes. Complementary mechanical, spectroscopic, and scanning microwave impedance measurements showed that stress-induced features locally modulate stiffness, surface potential, Raman intensity, and charge carrier density. We correlated I–V behavior with morphological features (wrinkles, tears, folds, height) and device-level geometry (MoS 2 overlap with electrodes, channel area, contact length) on 50 test structures across five chips to move beyond anecdotal conclusions. We found no universal correlations before DC stress. However, device-level geometry was correlated with I–V behavior after DC stress, suggesting that electrode contacts play a more dominant role than morphology in determining performance. Delamination and thinning induced by DC stress led to localized reductions in charge carrier density within the affected regions. Further, delamination and thinning appear to map to I–V device performance in a few samples, but the correlation is lost when a larger sample size is considered. This suggests significant sample-to-sample variability in surface electronic states of the test structures. We also discuss how environmental factors introduced during fabrication may contribute to the observed heterogeneous device response. Progress will require high-resolution, multimodal analysis across many samples constructed under controlled, clean conditions. By building data sets that capture variability, we can better identify the true drivers of performance.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Hydrazine-free precursor for solution-processed all-inorganic Se and Se 1− x Te x photovoltaics

Selenium (Se) has reemerged as a promising absorber material for indoor and tandem photovoltaics (PVs), and its alloys with Te (Se 1−x Te x ) offer a widely tunable bandgap. Solution processing of this materials system offers a route to low-cost fabrication. However, solution processing of Se has, thus far, only used hydrazine, which is an extremely hazardous solvent. In this work, we prepare and isolate propylammonium poly-Se and poly-Se–Te precursors from a safer thiol-amine solvent system. We formulate molecular inks by dissolving the precursor in dimethylformamide (DMF) with a monoethanolamine (EA) additive and process high-quality Se and Se 1−x Te x films with bandgaps ranging from 1.20 eV to 1.86 eV. We fabricate PVs from these films using TiO 2 and MoO 3 charge transport layers (CTLs) to achieve power conversion efficiencies as high as 2.73% for Se and 2.33% for Se 0.7 Te 0.3 under solar simulation. Se devices show excellent stability with no degradation after 1 month in air, enabled by the excellent stability of Se and the use of inorganic CTLs. This work represents an important step towards low-cost solution-phase processing of Se and Se 1−x Te x alloys for PVs and photodetectors with low toxicity and high bandgap tunability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Leaf traits and canopy structure together explain canopy functional diversity: an airborne remote sensing approach

Plant functional diversity is strongly connected to photosynthetic carbon assimilation in terrestrial ecosystems. However, many of the plant functional traits that regulate photosynthetic capacity, including foliar nitrogen concentration and leaf mass per area, vary significantly between and within plant functional types and vertically through forest canopies, resulting in considerable landscape-scale heterogeneity in three dimensions. Hyperspectral imagery has been used extensively to quantify functional traits across a range of ecosystems but is generally limited to providing information for top-of-canopy leaves only. On the other hand, lidar data can be used to retrieve the vertical structure of forest canopies. Because these data are rarely collected at the same time, there are unanswered questions about the effect of forest structure on the 3-D spatial patterns of functional traits across ecosystems. In the United States, the National Ecological Observatory Network's Airborne Observation Platform (NEON AOP) provides an opportunity to address this structure-function relationship by collecting lidar and hyperspectral data together across a variety of ecoregions. With a fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data from the NEON AOP and field-collected foliar trait data, we assessed the impacts of forest structure on spatial patterns of N. In addition, we examine the influence of abiotic gradients and management regimes on top of canopy %N and total canopy N (i.e. the total amount of N (g/m 2 ) within a forest canopy) at a NEON site consisting of a mosaic of open longleaf pine and dense broadleaf deciduous forests. Here, our resulting maps suggest that in contrast with top-of-canopy values, total canopy N variation is dampened across this landscape resulting in relatively homogeneous spatial patterns. At the same time, we found that leaf functional diversity and canopy structural diversity showed distinct dendritic patterns related to the spatial distribution of plant functional types.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Understanding Inlet Concentration Effects on the Electrocatalytic Conversion of CO 2 to Formic Acid in Gas-Fed Electrolyzers

The electrochemical CO 2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) to produce value-added products remains a developing technology for utilizing waste CO 2 streams. Most device-level CO2RR studies use pure CO 2 gas feeds; however, the effect of dilute CO 2 on the electrolyzer performance is an important consideration for large-scale electrolyzer operation, single-pass conversion, and real-world CO 2 source utilization. This work investigates the effect that the CO 2 concentration has on the performance of formic acid (HCOOH) producing tin oxide (SnO 2 ) and bismuth oxide (Bi 2 O 3 ) catalysts in an electrolyzer device setting. Surprisingly, SnO2 demonstrated an approximately 20% increase in HCOOH selectivity (Faradaic efficiency) when the CO 2 concentration decreased from 100 to 20%. In contrast, Bi 2 O 3 consistently demonstrated high selectivity toward HCOOH across the same CO 2 concentration range. The effects of the CO 2 concentration on selectivity were further investigated with half-cell experiments and in situ Raman spectroscopy, which revealed dynamic changes in the cathodic overpotential and chemical state of the catalyst that depended on the CO 2 concentration. Density functional theory calculations showed how changes in the surface oxidation state of Sn, varying from fully oxidized SnO 2 to metallic Sn(0), affect the thermodynamic barriers of the three main observed products: HCOOH, CO, and H 2 . Our results indicate that dilute CO 2 concentrations required larger cathodic overpotentials to sustain a fixed current density, which, in turn, pushed the Sn-based catalyst toward a more reduced surface that was favorable to HCOOH formation. On the other hand, the Bi-based catalyst remained in a metallic state at CO2RR-relevant potentials and demonstrated a consistent product selectivity regardless of CO 2 concentration. These findings highlight how varying the CO 2 inlet gas concentrations affects the chemical state of catalysts and the resulting performance metrics.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Trifluoromethylated Phenanthroline Ligands Reduce Excited-State Distortion in Homoleptic Copper(I) Complexes

Herein, we report the synthesis and excited-state dynamics for a series of homoleptic copper(I) trifluoromethylated phenanthroline complexes with two, three, and four trifluoromethyl functional groups. Our analysis of the steady-state absorbance and emission, transient-absorption spectroscopy, and electronic-structure-theory calculations results enable in-depth analysis of the pseudo-Jahn–Teller distortion inhibition from increased steric hindrance of the trifluoromethyl functional group relative to the prototypical dimethyl phenanthroline complex. Surprisingly, our results demonstrate that the greatest degree of pseudo-Jahn–Teller distortion inhibition is achieved with trifluoromethylation of only the 2 and 9 positions by an unusual combination of steric hindrance and stabilization of a nondistorted 1 MLCT manifold observed by transient kinetic lifetimes and optimized excited-state structures. The intersystem-crossing (ISC) lifetime for the 2,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-1,10-phenanthroline Cu(I) complex is 69 ps, while the triplet excited-state lifetime and emission quantum yield are 106 ns and 4 × 10 –3 , respectively. Further trifluoromethylation of the phenanthroline yields a greater σ bond inductive withdrawing force on the phenanthroline nitrogens, ultimately resulting in weaker coordination to the copper. Last, the surprising success of the 2,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-1,10-phenanthroline Cu(I) complex by adjusting both ligand sterics and electronic properties outlines a new strategy for developing long-lived Cu(I) charge-transfer complexes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Structure–property relationships of reduced graphene oxide membranes intercalated with polycyclic aromatics

Graphene oxide (GO) membranes intercalated with various organic moieties have shown excellent potential for a range of water processing applications. However, microstructure–functional property relationships in these structurally disordered membranes are not well understood. We demonstrate a practical methodology for developing such relationships for GO membranes intercalated with molecular species, with polycyclic aromatic toluidine blue O (TBO) as an example functional intercalant. We use solid-state UV–vis absorbance and fluorescence measurements to quantitatively track the arrangements of TBO in a series of TBO-loaded reduced GO (rGO) membranes. This study reveals the evolution of diverse arrangements including TBO monomers, lateral and stacked dimers, and other aggregates, as a function of overall TBO loading. These microstructures are then correlated to changes in overall properties such as interlayer d-spacings, permeate fluxes, and solute rejections. The characterization of these different intercalant microstructures explains non-intuitive flux and rejection trends, which can circumvent flux and solute rejection trade-offs.

02 PETROLEUM↗