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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 901 records · Page 50
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NASA NTRS2000

Coherent Doppler Laser Radar: Technology Development and Applications

NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center has been investigating, developing, and applying coherent Doppler laser radar technology for over 30 years. These efforts have included the first wind measurement in 1967, the first airborne flights in 1972, the first airborne wind field mapping in 1981, and the first measurement of hurricane eyewall winds in 1998. A parallel effort at MSFC since 1982 has been the study, modeling and technology development for a space-based global wind measurement system. These endeavors to date have resulted in compact, robust, eyesafe lidars at 2 micron wavelength based on solid-state laser technology; in a factor of 6 volume reduction in near diffraction limited, space-qualifiable telescopes; in sophisticated airborne scanners with full platform motion subtraction; in local oscillator lasers capable of rapid tuning of 25 GHz for removal of relative laser radar to target velocities over a 25 km/s range; in performance prediction theory and simulations that have been validated experimentally; and in extensive field campaign experience. We have also begun efforts to dramatically improve the fundamental photon efficiency of the laser radar, to demonstrate advanced lower mass laser radar telescopes and scanners; to develop laser and laser radar system alignment maintenance technologies; and to greatly improve the electrical efficiency, cooling technique, and robustness of the pulsed laser. This coherent Doppler laser radar technology is suitable for high resolution, high accuracy wind mapping; for aerosol and cloud measurement; for Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) measurements of atmospheric and trace gases; for hard target range and velocity measurement; and for hard target vibration spectra measurement. It is also suitable for a number of aircraft operations applications such as clear air turbulence (CAT) detection; dangerous wind shear (microburst) detection; airspeed, angle of attack, and sideslip measurement; and fuel savings through headwind minimization. In addition to the airborne and space platforms, a coherent Doppler laser radar system in an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) could provide battlefield weather and target identification.

Kavaya, Michael J.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Three-Dimensional Stress Fields and Slip Systems for Single Crystal Superalloy Notched Specimens

Single crystal superalloys have become increasingly popular for turbine blade and vane applications due to their high strength, and creep and fatigue resistance at elevated temperatures. The crystallographic orientation of a single crystal material greatly affects its material properties, including elastic modulus, shear modulus, and ductility. These directional properties, along with the type of loading and temperature, dictate an anisotropic response in the yield strength, creep resistance, creep rupture ductility, fatigue resistance, etc. A significant amount of research has been conducted to determine the material properties in the <001> orientation, yet the material properties deviating from the <001> orientation have not been assessed for all cases. Based on the desired application and design criteria, a crystal orientation is selected to yield the maximum properties. Currently, single crystal manufacturing is able to control the primary crystallographic orientation within 15 of the target orientation, which is an acceptable deviation to meet both performance and cost guidelines; the secondary orientation is rarely specified. A common experiment is the standard load-controlled tensile test, in which specimens with different orientations can be loaded to observe the material response. The deformation behavior of single-crystal materials under tension and compression is known to be a function of not only material orientation, but also of varying microdeformation (i.e. dislocation) mechanisms. The underlying dislocation motion causes deformation via slip, and affects the activation of specific slip systems based on load and orientation. The slip can be analyzed by observing the visible traces left on the surface of the specimen from the slip activity within the single crystal material. The goal of this thesis was to predict the slip systems activated in three-dimensional stress fields of a notched tensile specimen, as a function of crystal orientation, using finite element analysis without addressing microstructural deformation mechanisms that govern their activation. Out of three orientations tested, the specimen with a [110] load orientation and a [001] growth direction had the lowest maximum resolved shear stress; this specimen orientation appears to be the best design candidate for a tensile application.

Magnan, Shannon M.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Optical/thermal analysis methodology for a space-qualifiable RTP furnace

A methodology to predict the coupled optical/thermal performance of a reflective cavity heating system was developed and a laboratory test to verify the method was carried out. The procedure was utilized to design a rapid thermal processing (RTP) furnace for the Robot-Operated Material Processing in Space (ROMPS) Program which is a planned STS HH-G canister experiment involving robotics and material processing in microgravity. The laboratory test employed a tungsten-halogen reflector/lamp to heat thin, p-type silicon wafers. Measurements instrumentation consisted of 5-mil Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouples and an optical pyrometer. The predicted results, utilizing an optical ray-tracing program and a lumped-capacitance thermal analyzer, showed good agreement with the measured data for temperatures exceeding 1300 C.

Bugby, D.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Investigation of Primary Mirror Segment's Residual Errors for the Thirty Meter Telescope

The primary mirror segment aberrations after shape corrections with warping harness have been identified as the single largest error term in the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) image quality error budget. In order to better understand the likely errors and how they will impact the telescope performance we have performed detailed simulations. We first generated unwarped primary mirror segment surface shapes that met TMT specifications. Then we used the predicted warping harness influence functions and a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor model to determine estimates for the 492 corrected segment surfaces that make up the TMT primary mirror. Surface and control parameters, as well as the number of subapertures were varied to explore the parameter space. The corrected segment shapes were then passed to an optical TMT model built using the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) developed Modeling and Analysis for Controlled Optical Systems (MACOS) ray-trace simulator. The generated exit pupil wavefront error maps provided RMS wavefront error and image-plane characteristics like the Normalized Point Source Sensitivity (PSSN). The results have been used to optimize the segment shape correction and wavefront sensor designs as well as provide input to the TMT systems engineering error budgets.

warping harness↗
NASA NTRS1992

A detailed petrological analysis of hydrated, low-nickel, nonchondritic stratospheric dust particles

A detailed petrological analysis of three low-Ni, K-bearing, nonchondritic stratospheric dust particles is performed, and these particles are compared to products of high-energy, explosive (Plinian-type) volcanic events. The analytical electron microscope (AEM) analyses show pervasive layer silicates, carbonate and goethite, and chemical fractionation in the matrix of these particles similar to hydrothermal alteration in volcanic ejecta. Along with low Ni content and the presence of potassium, the texture and mineralogy of particles L2001-18, L2001-20, and L2002 C2 are similar to at least two nonchondritic stratospheric dust particles of the igneous subgroup for which an extraterrestrial origin has been suggested based on their minor- and trace-element abundances. The petrological characteristics of some low-Ni, K-bearing nonchondritic stratospheric dust particles supports a probable terrestrial volcanic origin, but the AEM data alone cannot exclude an extraterrestrial origin for these particles.

Rietmeijer, Frans J. M.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Demonstration of an Ultra-Short Channel Metal Monolith Catalytic Reactor for Trace Contaminant Control Applications

The International Space Station (ISS) Trace Contaminant Control Subassembly (TCCS) design is based upon proven, highly reliable technology. However, because its core unit operations rely upon expendable activated charcoal and an indirectly heated high temperature catalyst, annual logistics mass, crew time, and power consumption requirements are significant. To address this situation, a unique catalytic reactor design has been developed which is suitable for retrofit into the TCCS's high temperature catalytic oxidizer (HTCO) assembly. The unique design, which employs a metallic, ultra-short channel length monolith (USCM) catalyst substrate, was tested in a flight-like TCCS HTCO assembly to investigate its performance characteristics. Test results indicate that retrofitting the TCCS with a USCM-based catalytic reactor is feasible and that it may provide significant reductions in logistics mass, crew time, and power consumption. Savings indicated by test results are up to 81% for annual logistics, 56% for crew time, and 77% for startup transient duration. In addition, its demonstrated ability to operate in a power saving mode provides up to a 43% savings in average power consumption. A summary of the USCM demonstration test objectives, approach, results, and specific benefits to the TCCS's process economics are presented,

Perry, J. L↗
NASA NTRS2014

External Dependencies-Driven Architecture Discovery and Analysis of Implemented Systems

A method for architecture discovery and analysis of implemented systems (AIS) is disclosed. The premise of the method is that architecture decisions are inspired and influenced by the external entities that the software system makes use of. Examples of such external entities are COTS components, frameworks, and ultimately even the programming language itself and its libraries. Traces of these architecture decisions can thus be found in the implemented software and is manifested in the way software systems use such external entities. While this fact is often ignored in contemporary reverse engineering methods, the AIS method actively leverages and makes use of the dependencies to external entities as a starting point for the architecture discovery. The AIS method is demonstrated using the NASA's Space Network Access System (SNAS). The results show that, with abundant evidence, the method offers reusable and repeatable guidelines for discovering the architecture and locating potential risks (e.g. low testability, decreased performance) that are hidden deep in the implementation. The analysis is conducted by using external dependencies to identify, classify and review a minimal set of key source code files. Given the benefits of analyzing external dependencies as a way to discover architectures, it is argued that external dependencies deserve to be treated as first-class citizens during reverse engineering. The current structure of a knowledge base of external entities and analysis questions with strategies for getting answers is also discussed.

Ganesan, Dharmalingam↗
NASA NTRS2018

Improving the Performance of the OMPS Limb Profiling Instrument in Monitoring Aerosols in the Post-Pinatubo Stratosphere

The OMPS Limb Profiling (LP) instrument was launched on NOAA's Suomi NPP (SNPP) weather satellite in October 2011. The instrument measures limb-scattered radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and NIR wavelengths with high vertical resolution (~2 km) and relatively dense spatial and temporal sampling (several thousand measurements/day covering the entire sunlit globe). These measurements have very high sensitivity to stratospheric aerosols due to long path of the incoming solar photons through the aerosol layer. However, unlike the recently launched ISS/SAGE III that directly measures extinction of solar/lunar radiation by gases and particles along the line of sight (LOS) of the instrument, information content of OMPS LP measurements is complex. It consists of solar radiation singly scattered and attenuated by aerosols, air, and trace gases along the LOS of the instrument, as well as diffuse upwelling radiation from the lower atmosphere that also gets scattered and attenuated into the LOS. To unscramble this complex signal one needs to have good knowledge of aerosol size distribution (ASD) and their complex refractive index. We will describe our recent efforts in constraining the ASD parameters by analyzing in-situ balloon data from Laramie, Wyoming; aerosol microphysical model data from CARMA; and spectral information provided by OMPS LP. We will also discuss our proposed methodology to refine this information by adjusting the microphysical properties of the aerosols to make data from various occultation and scattering instruments internally consistent. This is a generalized version of the technique employed by AERONET in which solar extinction data are combined with scattered radiation measured by the almucantar technique to determine aerosol particle shape, complex refractive index and size distribution. We suggest that such closure studies are essential to develop confidence in space-based data to validate aerosol microphysical models, such as CARMA, and aerosol chemistry- transport models, such as GOCART, and for estimating radiative forcing due to stratospheric aerosols in both volcanic and quiescent time periods.

Bhartia, P. K.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Reflecting on Planning Models: A Challenge for Verification and Validation of Planning Systems

We discuss the opportunities for autonomous sys- tems to perform reflection on their planners by adapting the models used to build plans. We first describe model-based planning systems, a form of automated planning system driven by declarative models of the planning domain. These models include descriptions of the conditions and effects of actions on the state of the world. When planning the activities of cyber-physical systems, the command and data representation of the system must be formally abstracted to the actions and states described in the planning system model. When the execution of a plan either fails or produces unexpected outcomes, the execution trace can be abstracted and compared to the predicted state according to the planning model, producing a list of discrepancies; these discrepancies can then be used to fix the model. This provides part of a reflection capability, namely, a set of well-formed problems with the domain model, the abstractions, or both. The challenge lies in the rest of the reflection capability, namely, a set of techniques for changing the models or the abstractions. We discuss these challenges and describe some of the options for addressing them

Mission Planning↗
NASA NTRS2024

Decision Space Modeling: Trade Space Ontology

As the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) works to develop a crewed Moon to Mars Architecture, it is dealing with a large decision space consisting of the overlay of human exploration architectures for both the Moon and for Mars. Efforts are underway to enable reasoning, analysis, and deliberation on this decision space. A critical first step is to develop a model of the decision space, which will then allow for various methods and techniques to be applied in support of the larger architecture decision-making process. The Trade Space Ontology consists of a set of terminologies and relations (an ontology) and a MagicDraw resource that enables documentation of decisions and alternatives. It also provides a means by which decisions and alternatives can be traced to other Systems Engineering artifacts. For documenting alternatives, the Trade Space Ontology adapts the Morphological Matrix methodology to The Systems Modeling Language (SysML) through a profile; custom diagrams are also implemented to simplify the profile's use. With the profile and custom diagrams, system architects can specify options for architecture attributes, as well as compatibility between them, in a compact visual format. While the approach shares similarities to a trade tree, the emphasis at this stage is less on enumerating specific combinations of options and instead on specifying the options and their compatibility. Enumeration of alternatives is performed by an external analysis that operates on an output file from a model constructed using the Trade Space Ontology. For decisions, the Trade Space Ontology provides a way to model generic precedence relationships as well as documenting inputs and outputs. These may include what alternatives, criteria, and rationale are understood to be relevant for each decision. Importantly, the decision-making side of the Trade Space Ontology is defined at a more general level, such that it can be adapted to the specific terms in use by projects and programs at NASA. However, this adaptability also means that less capability is provided ``out-of-the-box'' from installation. Currently the resource includes plugin functionality to enumerate paths through generic precedence relationships between decisions and to export these paths to a spreadsheet. Custom dependency stereotypes are included in the profile to indicate the cross-cutting relationships between the trade space and the architecture decisions, providing a means to map which parts of the trade space enumerate alternatives for a decision, and to identify how the output of a decision may modify the trade space through pruning or down-selection. While the motivating use case for this resource is in human exploration architectures, the broad applicability of the Morphological Matrix methodology indicates that the Trade Space Ontology should also be useful for other activities and tasks at the agency.

Trade Tree↗
NASA NTRS1992

Resource constrained design of artificial neural networks using comparator neural network

We present a systematic design method executed under resource constraints for automating the design of artificial neural networks using the back error propagation algorithm. Our system aims at finding the best possible configuration for solving the given application with proper tradeoff between the training time and the network complexity. The design of such a system is hampered by three related problems. First, there are infinitely many possible network configurations, each may take an exceedingly long time to train; hence, it is impossible to enumerate and train all of them to completion within fixed time, space, and resource constraints. Second, expert knowledge on predicting good network configurations is heuristic in nature and is application dependent, rendering it difficult to characterize fully in the design process. A learning procedure that refines this knowledge based on examples on training neural networks for various applications is, therefore, essential. Third, the objective of the network to be designed is ill-defined, as it is based on a subjective tradeoff between the training time and the network cost. A design process that proposes alternate configurations under different cost-performance tradeoff is important. We have developed a Design System which schedules the available time, divided into quanta, for testing alternative network configurations. Its goal is to select/generate and test alternative network configurations in each quantum, and find the best network when time is expended. Since time is limited, a dynamic schedule that determines the network configuration to be tested in each quantum is developed. The schedule is based on relative comparison of predicted training times of alternative network configurations using comparator network paradigm. The comparator network has been trained to compare training times for a large variety of traces of TSSE-versus-time collected during back-propagation learning of various applications.

Wah, Benjamin W.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Recent Advances and Applications in Cryogenic Propellant Densification Technology

This purpose of this paper is to review several historical cryogenic test programs that were conducted at the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC), Cleveland, Ohio over the past fifty years. More recently these technology programs were intended to study new and improved denser forms of liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LO2) cryogenic rocket fuels. Of particular interest are subcooled cryogenic propellants. This is due to the fact that they have a significantly higher density (eg. triple-point hydrogen, slush etc.), a lower vapor pressure and improved cooling capacity over the normal boiling point cryogen. This paper, which is intended to be a historical technology overview, will trace the past and recent development and testing of small and large-scale propellant densification production systems. Densifier units in the current GRC fuels program, were designed and are capable of processing subcooled LH2 and L02 propellant at the X33 Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) scale. One final objective of this technical briefing is to discuss some of the potential benefits and application which propellant densification technology may offer the industrial cryogenics production and end-user community. Density enhancements to cryogenic propellants (LH2, LO2, CH4) in rocket propulsion and aerospace application have provided the opportunity to either increase performance of existing launch vehicles or to reduce the overall size, mass and cost of a new vehicle system.

Tomsik, Thomas M.↗
NASA NTRS2003

CO2 Acquisition Membrane (CAM) Project

The CO2 Acquisition Membrane (CAM) project was performed to develop, test, and analyze thin film membrane materials for separation and purification of carbon dioxide (CO2) from mixtures of gases, such as those found in the Martian atmosphere. The membranes developed in this project are targeted toward In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) applications, such as In Situ Propellant Production (ISPP) and In Situ Consumables Production (ISCP). These membrane materials may be used in a variety of ISRU systems, for example as the atmospheric inlet filter for an ISPP process to enhance the concentration of CO2 for use as a reactant gas, to passively separate argon and nitrogen trace gases from CO2 for habitat pressurization, to provide a system for removal of CO2 from breathing gases in a closed environment, or within a process stream to selectively separate CO2 from other gaseous components. The membranes identified and developed for CAM were evaluated for use in candidate ISRU processes and other gas separation applications, and will help to lay the foundation for future unmanned sample return and human space missions. CAM is a cooperative project split among three institutions: Lockheed Martin Astronautics (LMA), the Colorado School of Mines (CSM), and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).

Mason, Larry W.↗
NASA NTRS1993

UV/VUV radiometric calibrations at SURF II

Since 1981 more than 150 instrument calibrations have been performed on the radiometric instrumentation calibration beamline at the Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF II) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland. This 300 MeV electron storage ring operates routinely at electron currents greater than 250 mA. The spectrometer calibration beamline provides a continuum of radiation from 4 nm through the visual spectral region in the form of an intense beam with total angular divergence of 1.2 mrad. The probable uncertainty for the flux ranges from about 5 percent at 4 nm to less than 2 percent above 20 nm. The new system will radiometrically trace to SURF II, and thus is expected to reduce the calibration uncertainty for diodes in this region by a factor of five to the 1-2 percent level.

Furst, Mitchell L.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Lightning Charge Retrievals: Dimensional Reduction, LDAR Constraints, and a First Comparison w/ LIS Satellite Data

A "dimensional reduction" (DR) method is introduced for analyzing lightning field changes whereby the number of unknowns in a discrete two-charge model is reduced from the standard eight to just four. The four unknowns are found by performing a numerical minimization of a chi-squared goodness-of-fit function. At each step of the minimization, an Overdetermined Fixed Matrix (OFM) method is used to immediately retrieve the best "residual source". In this way, all 8 parameters are found, yet a numerical search of only 4 parameters is required. The inversion method is applied to the understanding of lightning charge retrievals. The accuracy of the DR method has been assessed by comparing retrievals with data provided by the Lightning Detection And Ranging (LDAR) instrument. Because lightning effectively deposits charge within thundercloud charge centers and because LDAR traces the geometrical development of the lightning channel with high precision, the LDAR data provides an ideal constraint for finding the best model charge solutions. In particular, LDAR data can be used to help determine both the horizontal and vertical positions of the model charges, thereby eliminating dipole ambiguities. The results of the LDAR-constrained charge retrieval method have been compared to the locations of optical pulses/flash locations detected by the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS).

Koshak, William↗
NASA NTRS2011

A Model of Reduced Kinetics for Alkane Oxidation Using Constituents and Species for N-Heptane

The reduction of elementary or skeletal oxidation kinetics to a subgroup of tractable reactions for inclusion in turbulent combustion codes has been the subject of numerous studies. The skeletal mechanism is obtained from the elementary mechanism by removing from it reactions that are considered negligible for the intent of the specific study considered. As of now, there are many chemical reduction methodologies. A methodology for deriving a reduced kinetic mechanism for alkane oxidation is described and applied to n-heptane. The model is based on partitioning the species of the skeletal kinetic mechanism into lights, defined as those having a carbon number smaller than 3, and heavies, which are the complement of the species ensemble. For modeling purposes, the heavy species are mathematically decomposed into constituents, which are similar but not identical to groups in the group additivity theory. From analysis of the LLNL (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) skeletal mechanism in conjunction with CHEMKIN II, it is shown that a similarity variable can be formed such that the appropriately non-dimensionalized global constituent molar density exhibits a self-similar behavior over a very wide range of equivalence ratios, initial pressures and initial temperatures that is of interest for predicting n-heptane oxidation. Furthermore, the oxygen and water molar densities are shown to display a quasi-linear behavior with respect to the similarity variable. The light species ensemble is partitioned into quasi-steady and unsteady species. The reduced model is based on concepts consistent with those of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) in which functional forms are used to replace the small scales eliminated through filtering of the governing equations; in LES, these small scales are unimportant as far as the overwhelming part of dynamic energy is concerned. Here, the scales thought unimportant for recovering the thermodynamic energy are removed. The concept is tested by using tabular information from the LLNL skeletal mechanism in conjunction with CHEMKIN II utilized as surrogate ideal functions replacing the necessary functional forms. The test reveals that the similarity concept is indeed justified and that the combustion temperature is well predicted, but that the ignition time is over-predicted, a fact traced to neglecting a detailed description of the processes leading to the heavies chemical decomposition. To palliate this deficiency, functional modeling is incorporated into this conceptual reduction in addition to the modeling the evolution of the global constituent molar density, the enthalpy evolution of the heavies, the contribution to the reaction rate of the unsteady lights from other light species and from the heavies, the molar density evolution of oxygen and water, and the mole fractions of the quasisteady light species. The model is compact in that there are only nine species-related progress variables. Results are presented showing the performance of the model for predicting the temperature and species evolution. The model reproduces the ignition time over a wide range of equivalence ratios, initial pressure, and initial temperature.

Harstad, Kenneth G.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Calculating Soil Wetness, Evapotranspiration and Carbon Cycle Processes Over Large Grid Areas Using a New Scaling Technique

Soil wetness typically shows great spatial variability over the length scales of general circulation model (GCM) grid areas (approx 100 km ), and the functions relating evapotranspiration and photosynthetic rate to local-scale (approx 1 m) soil wetness are highly non-linear. Soil respiration is also highly dependent on very small-scale variations in soil wetness. We therefore expect significant inaccuracies whenever we insert a single grid area-average soil wetness value into a function to calculate any of these rates for the grid area. For the particular case of evapotranspiration., this method - use of a grid-averaged soil wetness value - can also provoke severe oscillations in the evapotranspiration rate and soil wetness under some conditions. A method is presented whereby the probability distribution timction(pdf) for soil wetness within a grid area is represented by binning. and numerical integration of the binned pdf is performed to provide a spatially-integrated wetness stress term for the whole grid area, which then permits calculation of grid area fluxes in a single operation. The method is very accurate when 10 or more bins are used, can deal realistically with spatially variable precipitation, conserves moisture exactly and allows for precise modification of the soil wetness pdf after every time step. The method could also be applied to other ecological problems where small-scale processes must be area-integrated, or upscaled, to estimate fluxes over large areas, for example in treatments of the terrestrial carbon budget or trace gas generation.

Sellers, Piers↗
NASA NTRS2012

Automated Lab-on-a-Chip Electrophoresis System

Capillary electrophoresis is an analytical technique that can be used to detect and quantify extremely small amounts of various biological molecules. In the search for biochemical traces of life on other planets, part of this search involves an examination of amino acids, which are the building blocks of life on Earth. The most sensitive method for detecting amino acids is the use of laser induced fluorescence. However, since amino acids do not, in general, fluoresce, they first must be reacted with a fluorescent dye label prior to analysis. After this process is completed, the liquid sample then must be transported into the electrophoresis system. If the system is to be reused multiple times, samples must be added and removed each time. In typical laboratories, this process is performed manually by skilled human operators using standard laboratory equipment. This level of human intervention is not possible if this technology is to be implemented on extraterrestrial targets. Microchip capillary electrophoresis (CE) combined with laser induced fluorescence detection (LIF) was selected as an extremely sensitive method to detect amino acids and other compounds that can be tagged with a fluorescent dye. It is highly desirable to package this technology into an integrated, autonomous, in situ instrument capable of performing CE-LIF on the surface of an extraterrestrial body. However, to be fully autonomous, the CE device must be able to perform a large number of sample preparation and analysis operations without the direct intervention of a human.

Willis, Peter A.↗