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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Probabilistic Multi-Hazard Performance Assessment of Concrete Structures in Nuclear Installations

Concrete structures in nuclear installations are subject to time-dependent degradation mechanisms that can deteriorate their physical and mechanical properties, potentially exacerbating the risk of structural failure under external forces such as a seismic event. Previous research has extensively investigated the seismic response of nuclear concrete structures and the associated risk, as well as their effect on structural components safety margins. However, substantial work is still necessary to incorporate concrete aging effects into such evaluations. In fact, most models in the literature assume pristine concrete conditions and do not account for the impact of aging on the structural components’ fragility curves. This work identifies relevant time-dependent degradation mechanisms and provides simplified models to predict the the evolution of key material properties based on data from the literature. Namely, this work focuses on the aging effects of corrosion, alkali–silica reaction (ASR), and irradiation on reinforced concrete within US Department of Energy (DOE) nuclear facilities and nuclear power plants (NPP) structures. Furthermore, degradation models based on literature data are presented that define the relationship between probabilistic material properties and the concrete’s age. In this work, sampled material properties served as input for a simplified finite element model (FEM) of a critical nuclear structural system, with the output of the FEM being the seismic response for a given ground motion. The results of the FEM were then used within a probabilistic performance assessment with a statistically significant number of samples. The research presented herein addresses the detrimental effects of hazards caused by natural phenomena on deteriorated concrete elements of nuclear installations. This work directly benefits the safety analysis performed on US DOE/ National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) nuclear facilities located in areas prone to seismic activity. The results presented herein could aid in the improvement of DOE-STD-1020, the DOE Standard that addresses seismic risk analysis and capacity evaluation in DOE facilities. DOE-STD-1020 refers to the requirements in American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 4-98, now superseded by ASCE 4-16, that shall be met in performing dynamic response analyses and generating in-structure response spectra, provided that such requirements are consistent with the requirements of ASCE/Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) 43-05. Moreover, the results presented herein could also aid in the updating of section C3.1.1. of ASCE 4-16 to account for the effects of aging on the stiffness of reinforced elements and American Concrete Institute (ACI) 349.3R-18, “Report on Evaluation and Repair of Existing Nuclear Safety-Related Concrete Structures.” Ultimately, this work can assist the risk assessment of potential lifetime extension of the existing US commercial nuclear fleet (light water reactors) and the safety analysis of the emerging advanced nuclear reactors. The proposed proof-of-concept methodology employs open-source DOE computational tools and is transferable to commercial software commonly used by engineering firms.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Limited potential of irrigation to prevent potato yield losses in Germany under climate change

Climate models project higher temperatures and a substantial net water deficit during the summer months over Germany until the end of the 21st century. The agricultural sector is particularly vulnerable to changing weather and climate conditions. In this study, we examine the role of irrigation for potato yields as a climate change adaptation measure in Northeast Lower Saxony (Germany). The region represents the largest irrigated area in Germany and is one of the main growing areas of potatoes. We develop a statistical multivariate regression model to investigate whether regional climate and irrigation data at the monthly and county level are suitable to describe potato yield variability from 1978 to 2018. Irrigation is estimated based on the climatic water balance and crop water demand. These estimates are calibrated against irrigation data from local agencies to account for realistic monthly water withdrawals. We analyze future yield changes based on climate model projections for the 21st century and different irrigation scenarios. We find that the potato yield will decrease significantly by 18% on average until 2050 with climate projection uncertainty of ±6.4% under the high emission scenario RCP 8.5 and without irrigation. Irrigation at current levels could compensate for about 54% of these yield losses. Doubling the amount of irrigation minimizes yield losses by as much as 80%. Under the low (middle) emission scenario RCP 2.6 (RCP 4.5), potato yield are projected to decrease moderately by 4.5% ± 3.4% (5.4% ± 2.8%) with irrigation at current levels. We show that the yield losses mainly originate from higher temperatures during the summer. Our analysis indicates that the capacity of irrigation to minimize yield losses is limited. Strengthening climate change mitigation efforts may be more effective in preventing yield losses. However, the effect of elevated CO 2 might buffer the high yield losses, especially in RCP 8.5. The studies supports farmers and decision makers in assessing future risks in potato yields. It can guide policymakers in allocating economic resources to cope with climate change.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

The prospective impacts of 2019 state energy policies on the U.S. electricity system

Over the past several years state energy policies have been evolving rapidly, and are more frequently including higher targets, including 100% clean energy targets. This study assesses the aggregate impacts of state clean energy standards and emissions policies on national electricity generation, power sector carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, and electricity prices and system costs. To do so, we apply the Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) model, which is a detailed electric sector capacity expansion model, to evaluate scenarios with and without state policies and using a range of renewable energy technology cost projections. Across the scenarios analyzed, we find that the state policies drive 1.9%–10.7% of total nationwide clean energy and reduce cumulative power sector CO 2 emissions by 2.6%–5.4% over the 2020–2050 study period. This incremental generation is predominantly, but not exclusively, from renewable energy technologies. In most cases, the state policies result in increases to electricity prices and electricity system costs, and policy costs are sensitive to the future cost of clean energy technologies. Across all scenarios, the levelized cost of incremental policy-driven clean energy generation is estimated to be $17–38/MWh and the average cost of CO 2 abatement from the state-level policies is estimated to be $29–74/metric ton.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Analysis of Air-Purifying Respirator (APR) and Powered Air-Purifying Respirator (PAPR) Cartridge Performance Testing on a Hanford AX Tank Farm Exhauster Slipstream Volume 1

Washington River Protection Solutions (WRPS) conducted tests of four types of chemical cartridges for air-purifying respirators (APR) and powered air-purifying respirators (PAPR) to determine the period of time the cartridges would provide adequate performance1 for APRs and PAPRs used to protect workers when exposed to a mixture of Chemicals of Potential Concern (COPCs) from vapors exiting the Hanford AX tank farm exhauster slipstream. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) considers cartridge testing to be a valid approach for establishing a cartridge service life. Testing is applied in situations where mixtures of COPCs exist, and where other approaches, such as manufacturer recommendations and modeling, are less reliable. The tests were designed and conducted to assure measurement and/or control of the key variables OSHA identified as important to estimate the cartridge service life, including temperature, humidity, COPC concentration, breathing rate, and cartridge adsorption capacity. Cartridge testing using vapors from a Hanford AX tank farm exhauster slipstream was conducted from August 25–27, 2017. Vapors from the exhauster slipstream were fed to two respirator cartridge test stands developed by WRPS in collaboration with HiLine Engineering (Richland, Washington). Four different cartridges were assessed. Multipurpose APR cartridges—SCOTT 7422-SD1 and SCOTT 7422-SC1 (SCOTT Safety, Monroe, North Carolina)—were assessed on separate days using an APR cartridge test stand. Multipurpose PAPR cartridges—MSA-TL (TL1) (MSA Safety Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) and 3M FR57 (TL2) (3M Company, Maplewood, Minnesota)—also were tested over the same two days using a separate PAPR cartridge test stand. Sample media (i.e., sorbent tubes) were used to collect samples of the vapor stream entering and exiting the respirator cartridges and were subsequently analyzed for COPC concentrations. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory was tasked with conducting an independent analysis of the analytical results and making recommendations based on the results for respiratory cartridge performance and service life. The key conclusions from the analysis are described below.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2026

Novel Modular Heat Engines with sCO 2 Bottoming Cycle Utilizing Advanced Oil-Free Turbomachinery

This report presents the thermal, mechanical, and electric machine design of a 27krpm rotating test rig aimed at reducing technical risks with hermetic oil-free super-critical carbon dioxide (sCO 2 ) turbomachinery. The test rig rotor system is based on a conceptual turbomachine design discussed that evaluates a sCO 2 waste heat recovery (WHR) unit for land-based gas turbines at natural gas (NG) compressor stations. The key novelty of the hermetic sCO 2 turbomachine concept is the utilization of additively manufactured CO 2 gas bearings and a CO 2 -immersed direct-drive permanent magnet (PM) electric machine. The previous effort on conceptual design identified 3 main technical risks, which included thrust bearing load capacity, rotordynamics, and thermal performance of the system. Therefore, key requirements of the test vehicle include the ability to test the rotor system in a 400psi (27.6 bar) hermetic CO 2 operating environment, apply up to 1,500 lbs (6.7 kN) of rotor thrust loads, capability to assess rotordynamics with radial gas bearings, inclusion of instrumentation to assess thrust bearing load capability, and flexibility for varying secondary cooling flows to confirm thermal model predictions. Design topics such as rotordynamics, bearing design, and electric machine design are addressed, while highlighting critical elements. In addition, additive build trials for Inconel 718 radial and thrust bearings were performed to prove the manufacturability of the bearing design concepts. The results of the design efforts yield a test rig concept with ability to operate at 27,000 rpm, apply thrust loads to 1,500 lbs, deliver CO 2 up to 800psi, and modulate cooling flows.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Observational ozone datasets over the global oceans and polar regions (version 2024)

Studying tropospheric ozone over the remote areas of the planet, such as the open oceans and the polar regions, is crucial to understand the role of ozone as a global climate forcer and regulator of atmospheric oxidative capacity. A focus on the pristine oceanic and polar regions complements the available land-based datasets and provides insights into key photochemical and depositional loss processes that control the concentrations and spatiotemporal variability in ozone as well as the physicochemical mechanisms driving these patterns. However, an assessment of the role of ozone over the oceanic and polar regions has been hampered by a lack of comprehensive observational datasets. Here, we present the first comprehensive collection of ozone data over the oceans and the polar regions. The overall dataset consists of 77 ship cruises/buoy-based observations and 48 aircraft-based campaigns. The dataset, consisting of more than 630 000 independent ozone measurement data points covering the period from 1977 to 2022 and an altitude range from the surface to 5000 m (with a focus on the lowest 2000 m), allows systematic analyses of the spatiotemporal distribution and long-term trends over the 11 defined ocean/polar regions. The datasets from ships, buoys, and aircraft are complemented by ozonesonde data from 29 launch sites or field campaigns and by 21 non-polar and 17 polar ground-based station datasets. The datasets contain information on how long the observed air masses were isolated from land, as estimated by backward trajectories from the individual observation points. To extract observations representative of oceanic conditions, we recommend using a subset of the data with an isolation time of 72 h or longer, from the analysis with coincident radon observations. These filtered oceanic and polar data showed typically flat diurnal cycles at high latitudes, whereas daytime decreases in ozone (11 %–16 %) were observed at lower latitudes. The ship/buoy- and aircraft-based datasets presented here will supplement the land-based ones in the TOAR-II (Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report Phase II) database to provide a fully global assessment of tropospheric ozone. The described dataset is available at https://doi.org/10.17596/0004044 (Kanaya et al., 2025).

Kanaya, Yugo [Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Scienc↗
NASA NTRS1983

Sex steroids do not affect muscle weight, oxidative metabolism or cytosolic androgen reception binding of functionally overloaded rat Plantaris muscles

The effects of sex steroids on muscle weight and oxidative capacity of rat planaris muscles subjected to functional overload by removal of synergistic muscles were investigated. Ten weeks after bilateral synergist removal, plantaris muscles were significantly hypertrophic compared with unoperated controls. After this period, the ability of the muscles to oxide three substrates of oxidative metabolism was assessed. Experimental procedures are discussed and results are presented herein. Results suggest a lack of beneficial effect of sex hormone status on the process of hypertrophy and on biochemical changes in overloaded muscle. Such findings are not consistent with the idea of synergistic effects of sex steroids and muscle usage.

Max, S. R.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Task 2.1: Adsorption-Based ISPR for BETO-Relevant Bioproducts

This task focuses on the development of adsorption-based in situ product recovery (ISPR) integrated with simulated moving bed chromatography for the recovery and purification of carboxylate products that are relevant to BETO. ISPR has been pursued previously in the Separations Consortium to recover carboxylic acids near or below their pKa values with liquid-liquid extraction coupled to downstream distillation. However, there are many acid products in the BETO portfolio that require neutralization well above their pKa values wherein ISPR could still be a major benefit to the bioprocess performance, including muconic acid, beta-ketoadipic acid, 3-hydroxypropionic acid, itaconic acid, butyric acid, and others. In this task, we are combining dynamic filtration with a rotating ceramic disk, resin capacity measurements, tailored resin synthesis, and simulated moving bed chromatography into an ISPR system that can be used to recover BETO-relevant carboxylates from bioreactor cultivations. We are working across process scales and using computational modeling where applicable alongside techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment to understand major cost, energy, and GHG emissions drivers. The impact of this project will be a bench-scale integrated approach to recover carboxylate products in situ, which will reduce the waste generation from biological carboxylate production processes and improve the productivities of biological systems.

bio-based acid↗
DOE OSTI2024

Assessing the Solar Photovoltaic Potential in Puerto Rican Brownfields and Reservoirs: Analysis and Modeling [Slides]

This study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) evaluates the potential for solar photovoltaic (PV) development on brownfields and reservoirs in Puerto Rico. Redeveloping these sites offers significant benefits, such as expanding energy infrastructure, supporting environmental remediation, and enhancing community revitalization. The study identifies up to 3.3 gigawatts (GW) of solar PV capacity, including 213 megawatts (MW) on closed landfills, 1-2.5 GW on contaminated sites, 78 MW on decommissioned plants, 21-50 MW on transmission line rights-of-way, and 636 MW on waterbodies for floating PV. This research highlights the strategic importance of investments and regulatory support to achieve Puerto Rico's goal of 100% clean energy by 2050.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Assessing Cost-Optimal Battery Energy and Solar-Plus-Storage Systems for Federal Customers: A Nationwide Assessment: Preprint

Prior research has identified that the financial viability of behind-the-meter battery energy storage systems is heavily dependent on technology cost, utility rate structure, energy consumption patterns, and co-deployment with synergistic technologies like solar photovoltaics (PV), among other factors. This study builds on existing research by comprehensively evaluating the economics of battery energy storage systems (BESS) and solar-plus-storage systems for a reference office building at 755 reference sites under 834 utility rates, and four storage capital cost scenarios. Results indicate that even with dramatic cost reductions, BESS is likely to be cost-effective only under utility rates that include demand charges, and possibly include time-of-use (TOU) pricing as well. Even under these utility rates, BESS systems provide marginal savings, and office building operators are unlikely to deploy the technology for cost savings alone. Solar-plus-storage systems provide more savings than BESS and allow for larger economic storage capacities. Solar-plus-storage provides compelling savings opportunities at baseline prices, and even at capital costs 25% higher than baseline. Solar-plus-storage is most effective where there are demand charges and energy pricing schemes include TOU pricing, or where electricity is expensive (at least $0.30/kWh). Our case studies illustrate that the presence of demand charges, even at similar energy costs, can be the deciding factor in BESS and solar-plus-storage viability. The findings and maps from this assessment may be of use to planners, building owners, and developers looking for potentially economic storage opportunities.

battery energy storage systems↗
DOE OSTI2020

The role of nuclear in China’s energy future: insights from integrated assessment

China, the world’s largest electricity consumer, has strong motivations to deploy nuclear power due to increasing electricity demand and environmental concerns. However, there are social, institutional, and technical barriers to future nuclear expansion. This paper provides an updated assessment of nuclear energy potential in China with analyses at both national and provincial levels and compares results with studies previously conducted. Using an integrated assessment model, this paper considers the interactions among different socioeconomic development pathways, technology options, climate policies, and social/political concerns on inland siting. Among all factors explored, climate policies have the most significant impact on accelerating the deployment of nuclear technologies. Inland siting of nuclear power plants increases total capacity, but the impact is limited without climate policy. The amount of annual nuclear generation across scenarios and studies is unlikely to rise above 11% by 2030 and 30% by 2050 of total Chinese electricity generation. A dramatic increase in total Chinese nuclear energy generating capacity – around 3900 TWh of nuclear generation by 2050 – is only possible in scenarios where China sees electricity demand increase substantially, sticks to and tightens its current Paris Accord commitments, achieves low costs of nuclear technologies, and allows inland siting of nuclear power plants.

China, integrated assesment, Nuclear Power Plants↗
DOE OSTI2025

Data Placement Optimization for ATLAS in a Multi-Tiered Storage System within a Data Center

Scientific experiments and computations, especially in High Energy Physics, are generating and accumulating data at an unprecedented rate. Effectively managing this vast volume of data while ensuring efficient data analysis poses a significant challenge for data centers, which must integrate various storage technologies. This paper proposes addressing this challenge by designing and developing a precise data popularity prediction model utilizing state-of-theart AI/ML techniques. This model is crafted from the analysis of ATLAS data and access patterns. It enables us to migrate infrequently accessed data to more economical storage media, such as tape drives, while storing frequently accessed data on faster yet costlier storage media like HDD or SSD. This strategic approach ensures data is placed optimally into the appropriate storage classes, thereby maximizing storage capacity while minimizing data access latency for end-users. Furthermore, the paper includes a performance evaluation of the prediction model using various key metrics such as F1 score, accuracy, precision and recall. Finally, we present a prototype use case, leveraging real-world file access data to assess the model’s impact on performance.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Understanding Solar Photovoltaic System Performance: An Assessment of 75 Federal Photovoltaic Systems

This report presents a performance analysis of 75 photovoltaic systems based on PV system production data collected as part of a FEMP Federal PV Performance Assessment project combined with co-incident insolation, and ambient temperature to analyze how actual performance compares with a performance model. FEMP collaborated with 17 Federal agencies and sub-agencies to collect the information required to analyze the performance of each system. The systems represent a total capacity of 30,714 kW and range in size from 1 kW to 4,043 kW, with an average size of 410 kW, and were installed between 2011 and 2020. The data is analyzed for Key Performance Indicators, Availability, Performance Ratio and Energy Ratio by comparing the measured production data to model production data. The System Advisor Model (SAM) combines a description of the system (such as inverter capacity, de-rating for temperature, balance-of-system efficiency) with environmental parameters (coincident solar and temperature data) to calculate predicted performance. The performance metrics are calculated by lining up the measured production data with the model estimate on an hour-by-hour, day-by-day, or month-by-month basis (depending on the interval resolution of the production data). A report with system description, photo of the system, special assumptions made for the site, graph of measured production and model production, table of key performance indicators, and links to O&M resources that might improve performance was produced and delivered to site and agency staff with a short on-line briefing.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS1981

Pacific Basin Communications Study, Volume 1

The Pacific Basin Communications Study describes and assesses extent telecommunications systems in the Pacific Islands region. The study examines user needs in terms of the development of social services and commercial activities. Alternative technological solutions to communications problems are proposed and described. Recommendations include the augmentation and improvement of existing systems allowing for increased communications capacity. Regional cooperation will be required to accommodate the specific, unique requirements of individual nations. Questions of financing, implementation, management, costs and benefits of a regional telecommunications system are discussed.

Young, E. L.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Analytic Development of a Reference Profile for the First Entry in a Skip Atmospheric Entry

This note shows that a feasible reference drag profile for the first entry portion of a skip entry can be generated as a polynomial expression of the velocity. The coefficients of that polynomial are found through the resolution of a system composed of m + 1 equations, where m is the degree of the drag polynomial. It has been shown that a minimum of five equations (m = 4) are required to establish the range and the initial and final conditions on velocity and flight path angle. It has been shown that at least one constraint on the trajectory can be imposed through the addition of one extra equation in the system, which must be accompanied by the increase in the degree of the drag polynomial. In order to simplify the resolution of the system of equations, the drag was considered as being a probability density function of the velocity, with the velocity as a distribution function of the drag. Combining this notion with the introduction of empirically derived constants, it has been shown that the system of equations required to generate the drag profile can be successfully reduced to a system of linear algebraic equations. For completeness, the resulting drag profiles have been flown using the feedback linearization method of differential geometric control as a guidance law with the error dynamics of a second order homogeneous equation in the form of a damped oscillator. Satisfactory results were achieved when the gains in the error dynamics were changed at a certain point along the trajectory that is dependent on the velocity and the curvature of the drag as a function of the velocity. Future work should study the capacity to update the drag profile in flight when dispersions are introduced. Also, future studies should attempt to link the first entry, as presented and controlled in this note, with a more standard control concept for the second entry, such as the Apollo entry guidance, to try to assess the overall skip entry performance. A guidance law that includes an integral feedback term, as is the case in the actual Space Shuttle entry guidance and as is proposed in Ref 29, could be tried in future studies to assess whether its use results in an improvement of the tracking performance, and to evaluate the design needs when determining the control gains.

Garcia-Llama, Eduardo↗
NASA NTRS2017

Preliminary Investigation of Impact of Technological Impairment on Trajectory-Based Operations

The Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) incorporates collaborative air traffic management and Trajectory-Based Operations (TBO) in order to significantly increase the capacity, efficiency, and predictability of operations in the National Airspace System (NAS), without decreasing safety. This is enabled by airspace users and service providers sharing knowledge about operations that allows prediction of the complete 4D flight trajectory with as little uncertainty as possible. Additionally, new software and hardware technology is critical to reaching NextGen goals, especially with regard to TBO. What if the technologies that are critical for TBO were to be impaired or fail completely? Should there be a malfunction of a piece of the technology, it must be ensured that the whole system does not break down completely or suffer severe impairment. Instead, operations need to be maintained proportionally to the problem and safety needs to be ensured (graceful degradation). This paper proposes a systematic framework to investigate the vulnerability of TBO to technology disruption, and determine the impact of technological impairment on TBO. Two representative technologies are chosen for detailed investigation and the impact of their impairment on the degradation of TBO is illustrated using a weather-related scenario. XXXX There are several possible directions of future work. We believe it is desirable to develop methods to quantitatively assess the impact of technological disruption on TBO and to have the simulation tools to validate the impact. The availability of prognostics and health management methods could be leveraged to predict technological failure/disruption, thus predicting how TBO will be a ected, and possibly pro-actively mitigating the impact. It is important to develop large-scale scenarios where the e ect of technological impairment is prominent, and identify methods to quantitatively assess the extent of TBO degradation. An important goal of such an investigation is the development of failure-resistant resilient trajectory-based oper- ations. Resilience14, 15 is the property of a system to \bounce back" and resume at least a signi cant portion of its functionalities after degradation due to technological impairment(s). A systems resilience includes properties such as \bu ering capacity" (quantifying disruptions the system can absorb or adapt to without a fundamental breakdown in performance or in the systems structure), \ exibility" (ability to restructure itself in response to external changes or pressures), "margin" (how closely the system is currently operating rela- tive to one or another kind of performance boundary), \tolerance" (whether the system gracefully degrades as stress/pressure increase, or collapses quickly when pressure exceeds adaptive capacity), etc. Future work needs to focus on quantifying and improving the resilience of TBO, and identifying resilient design solutions for aviation.

TBO↗
NASA NTRS2020

Thermal Impact of Cosmic Ray Interaction with an XRay Microcalorimeter Array

The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) instrument on the Athena mission will be positioned at the Lagrangian point L2 and be subject to cosmic rays generated by astrophysics sources, primarily relativistic protons. Previous simulations have shown that particles of energy higher than 150 MeV will make it through the outer layers of the satellite. They will reach the detector wafer with a rate of 3 cts/sq. cm/s and a most probable energy deposited in the Si frame supporting the array at 150 keV. These events can affect the energy resolution of the detectors through the thermal fluctuations that they produce. This study assesses this potential problem and discusses two suggested design approaches to decrease the impact of cosmic ray in order to limit their effect to their allocation of 0.2 eV within the Athena/X-IFU energy-resolution budget. The first is the addition of a coating layer of high heat capacity material (e.g., Pd) and the second is the splitting of this coating into two thermal regions near the TES array to keep the heat away from the array. Implementing these two features is predicted to cause a decrease in the number of events above 1 μK by more than a factor 10 to ~ 1.5 cps when compared to an equivalent design without these features.

Antoine R. Miniussi↗