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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2021

Atomistic insights into the nucleation and growth of platinum on palladium nanocrystals

Abstract Despite the large number of reports on colloidal nanocrystals, very little is known about the mechanistic details in terms of nucleation and growth at the atomistic level. Taking bimetallic core-shell nanocrystals as an example, here we integrate in situ liquid-cell transmission electron microscopy with first-principles calculations to shed light on the atomistic details involved in the nucleation and growth of Pt on Pd cubic seeds. We elucidate the roles played by key synthesis parameters, including capping agent and precursor concentration, in controlling the nucleation site, diffusion path, and growth pattern of the Pt atoms. When the faces of a cubic seed are capped by Br − , Pt atoms preferentially nucleate from corners and then diffuse to edges and faces for the creation of a uniform shell. The diffusion does not occur until the Pt deposited at the corner has reached a threshold thickness. At a high concentration of the precursor, self-nucleation takes place and the Pt clusters then randomly attach to the surface of a seed for the formation of a non-uniform shell. These atomistic insights offer a general guideline for the rational synthesis of nanocrystals with diverse compositions, structures, shapes, and related properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Efficiency and Forward Voltage of Blue and Green Lateral LEDs with V-shaped Defects and Random Alloy Fluctuation in Quantum Wells

For nitride-based blue and green light-emitting diodes (LEDs), the forward voltage V for is larger than expected, especially for green LEDs. This is mainly due to the large barriers to vertical carrier transport caused by the total polarization discontinuity at multiple quantum well and quantum barrier interfaces. The natural random alloy fluctuation in quantum wells has proven to be an important factor reducing V for . However, this does not suffice in the case of green LEDs because of their larger polarization-induced barrier. V-shaped defects (V-defects) have been proposed as another key factor in reducing V for to allow lateral injection into multiple quantum wells, thus bypassing the multiple energy barriers incurred by vertical transport. In this paper, to model carrier transport in the whole LED, we consider both random-alloy and V-defect effects. A fully two-dimensional drift-diffusion charge-control solver is used to model both effects. The results indicate that the turn-on voltages for blue and green LEDs are both affected by random alloy fluctuations and the V-defect density. For green LEDs, V for decreases more due to V-defects, where the smaller polarization barrier at the V-defect sidewall is the major path for lateral carrier injection. Then, we discuss how the V-defect density and size affects the results.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗

DOE OSTI2025

Dynamical Signatures of Thermotoga maritima Maltose-Binding Proteins Affected by Ligand Binding

Functional segregation among protein isoforms depends on the interplay of their overall structures and the molecular dynamics of these structures. Thermotoga maritima maltose-binding protein (tmMBP) isoforms show size-dependent differential binding of maltose and malto-oligomers while maintaining remarkable fold conservation. This differential behavior needs detailed characterization in native-like aqueous conditions to understand the effects of protein dynamics on ligand binding and recognition. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), neutron spin echo (NSE) spectroscopy, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used in conjunction with previously published computational molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to understand the dynamic behavior of tmMBPs experimentally. SANS provided information on the overall structure of the molecules, while NSE was used to determine the dynamics in the nanosecond time scale. Both tmMBP2 and tmMBP3 have a bidomain architecture linked with a flexible hinge, with the binding pocket sitting in the cleft between the two domains. tmMBP2 and tmMBP3 showed different solution dynamics, with the translational and rotational components dominating the dynamics of both systems, resulting in a clear differentiation of their diffusion pattern. A faster dynamics component was also observed and was attributed to segmental dynamics. Differences observed between the ligand-free (apo) and ligand-bound (holo) states of the two proteins are attributed to conformational entropy. Our results highlight the intricacies of how structure and dynamics can together shape binding to a repertoire of substrates in structurally similar proteins.

Diffusion↗

DOE OSTI2015

Electrophoretic deposited TiO 2 pigment-based back reflectors for thin film solar cells

Highly reflective coatings with strong light scattering effect have many applications in optical components and optoelectronic devices. This paper reports titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) pigment-based reflectors that have 2.5 times higher broadband diffuse reflection than commercially produced aluminum or silver based reflectors and result in efficiency enhancements of a single-junction amorphous Si solar cell. Electrophoretic deposition is used to produce pigment-based back reflectors with high pigment density, controllable film thickness and site-specific deposition. Electrical conductivity of the pigment-based back reflectors is improved by creating electrical vias throughout the pigment-based back reflector by making holes using an electrical discharge / dielectric breakdown approach followed by a second electrophoretic deposition of conductive nanoparticles into the holes. While previous studies have demonstrated the use of pigment-based back reflectors, for example white paint, on glass superstrate configured thin film Si solar cells, this work presents a scheme for producing pigment-based reflectors on complex shape and flexible substrates. Finally, mechanical durability and scalability are demonstrated on a continuous electrophoretic deposition roll-to-roll system which has flexible metal substrate capability of 4 inch wide and 300 feet long.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optical properties of vacancies in aluminum oxide (𝛼−Al 2 ⁢O 3 ) from first principles

We employ first-principles calculations based on hybrid density functional theory to investigate the structural and optical properties of the oxygen vacancy (𝑉 O ) and aluminum vacancy (𝑉 Al ) in 𝛼−Al 2 ⁢O 3 , the most stable (corundum) phase of alumina. Our calculations facilitate the identification of experimental excitation and luminescence spectra with specific electronic transitions at the vacancy sites. The absorption line shape for excitation of an electron at 𝑉$^0_O$ to the conduction-band minimum (CBM) is in excellent agreement with the 6.1 eV band detected by optical absorption spectroscopy, and we find that the 5.9 eV absorption band is generated by an internal electron transition at 𝑉$^0_O$. We confirm that the slowly decaying 3.0 eV emission band of the 𝐹 center is due to a triplet-singlet transition at 𝑉$^0_O$. Our calculations also reveal that the 4.8 eV/5.4 eV absorption and 3.8 eV emission bands assigned to the 𝐹 + center are generated by internal transitions at 𝑉$^{+1}_O$. The line shape for the excitation of an electron from 𝑉$^{+1}_O$ to the CBM agrees well with an absorption band at 6.4 eV, while the recombination of an electron with 𝑉$^{+2}_O$ also produces luminescence around 3.8 eV, but with a considerably broader line shape. For Al vacancies, we confirm that the most prevalent configuration in 𝛼−Al 2 ⁢O 3 is a split-vacancy configuration 𝑉 Al,s , and we calculate migration barriers for different directions in the corundum crystal. We predict absorption and emission spectra for the excitation and recombination of an electron localized at 𝑉$^{−3}_{Al}$ and 𝑉$^{−3}_{Al,s}$ sites with the CBM. The line shapes of the two 𝑉 Al configurations overlap and are considerably broader than the spectra corresponding to 𝑉 O .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2014

The role of spin exchange in charge transfer in low-bandgap polymer: Fullerene bulk heterojunctions

Formation, relaxation and dynamics of polarons and methanofullerene anion radicals photoinitiated in poly[N-9″-hepta-decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4′,7′-di-2-thienyl-2′,1′, 3′-benzothiadiazole)]:-[6,6]-phenyl-C{sub 61}-butyric acid methyl ester (PCDTBT:PC{sub 61}BM) bulk heterojunctions were studied mainly by light-induced EPR (LEPR) spectroscopy in wide photon energy and temperature ranges. Some polarons are pinned by spin traps whose number and depth are governed by the composite morphology and photon energy. The proximity of the photon energy and the polymer bandgap reduces the number of such traps, inhibits recombination of mobile charge carriers, and facilitates their mobility in polymer network. Spin relaxation and charge carrier dynamics were studied by the steady-state saturation method at wide range of temperature and photon energy. These processes were shown to be governed by spin exchange as well as by the photon energy. Charge transfer in the composite is governed by the polaron scattering on the lattice phonons of crystalline domains embedded into amorphous polymer matrix and its activation hopping between polymer layers. The energy barrier required for polaron interchain hopping exceeds that of its intrachain diffusion. Anisotropy of polaron dynamics in the PCDTBT:PC61BM composite is less than that of poly(3-alkylthiophenes)-based systems that evidences for better ordering of the former. Lorentzian shape of LEPR lines of both charge carriers, lower concentration of spin traps as well as behaviours of the main magnetic resonance parameters were explained by layer ordered morphology of polymer matrix.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2014

FAR-INFRARED EXTINCTION MAPPING OF INFRARED DARK CLOUDS

Progress in understanding star formation requires detailed observational constraints on the initial conditions, i.e., dense clumps and cores in giant molecular clouds that are on the verge of gravitational instability. Such structures have been studied by their extinction of near-infrared and, more recently, mid-infrared (MIR) background light. It has been somewhat more of a surprise to find that there are regions that appear as dark shadows at far-infrared (FIR) wavelengths as long as ∼100 μm! Here we develop analysis methods of FIR images from Spitzer-MIPS and Herschel-PACS that allow quantitative measurements of cloud mass surface density, Σ. The method builds on that developed for MIR extinction mapping by Butler and Tan, in particular involving a search for independently saturated, i.e., very opaque, regions that allow measurement of the foreground intensity. We focus on three massive starless core/clumps in the Infrared Dark Cloud (IRDC) G028.37+00.07, deriving mass surface density maps from 3.5 to 70 μm. A by-product of this analysis is the measurement of the spectral energy distribution of the diffuse foreground emission. The lower opacity at 70 μm allows us to probe to higher Σ values, up to ∼1 g cm{sup –2} in the densest parts of the core/clumps. Comparison of the Σ maps at different wavelengths constrains the shape of the MIR-FIR dust opacity law in IRDCs. We find that it is most consistent with the thick ice mantle models of Ossenkopf and Henning. There is tentative evidence for grain ice mantle growth as one goes from lower to higher Σ regions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

THE REST-FRAME ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT PROFILE SHAPES OF Ly{alpha}-EMITTING GALAXIES AT z = 3.1

We present a morphological analysis of the rest-frame ultraviolet emission of 78 resolved, high signal-to-noise z {approx} 3.1 Ly{alpha} emitters (LAEs) in the Extended Chandra Deep Field-South. Using Hubble Space Telescope/Advanced Camera for Surveys V-band images taken as part of the Galaxy Evolution from Morphology and SEDs, Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey, and Hubble Ultra Deep Field surveys, we investigate both single-component and multi-component LAEs, and derive concentration indices, Sersic indices, ellipticities, and half-light radii for all resolved components and systems with a signal-to-noise >30. We show that, although the LAE population is heterogeneous in nature, most LAEs are highly concentrated, with a distribution of C values similar to that measured for field stars; this suggests that the diagnostic is a poor discriminator near the resolution limit. The LAEs also display a wide range of Sersic indices (0 < n < 12), similar to that seen for galaxies in the local neighborhood. However, the majority of LAEs have n < 2, and a visual inspection of the images suggests that the small-n objects have extended or multimodal luminosity profiles, while the LAEs with n > 2 have compact components surrounded by diffuse emission. Moreover, unlike nearby spiral galaxies, whose distribution of ellipticities is flat, the LAE ellipticity distribution peaks near 1 - b/a {approx} 0.55. Thus, the population has more in common with z {approx} 3 Lyman-break galaxies than local star-forming objects.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2018

In Situ Observation of Calcium Aluminate Inclusions Dissolution into Steelmaking Slag

The dissolution rate of calcium aluminate inclusions in CaO-SiO{sub 2}-Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} slags has been studied using confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) at elevated temperatures: 1773 K, 1823 K, and 1873 K (1500 °C, 1550 °C, and 1600 °C). The inclusion particles used in this experimental work were produced in our laboratory and their production technique is explained in detail. Even though the particles had irregular shapes, there was no rotation observed. Further, the total dissolution time decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing SiO{sub 2} content in the slag. The rate limiting steps are discussed in terms of shrinking core models and diffusion into a stagnant fluid model. It is shown that the rate limiting step for dissolution is mass transfer in the slag at 1823 K and 1873 K (1550 °C and 1600 °C). Further investigations are required to determine the dissolution mechanism at 1773 K (1500 °C). The calculated diffusion coefficients were inversely proportional to the slag viscosity and the obtained values for the systems studied ranged between 5.64 × 10{sup −12} and 5.8 × 10{sup −10} m{sup 2}/s.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2014

Low-temperature route to metal titanate perovskite nanoparticles for photocatalytic applications

MTiO 3 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba) nanoparticles were synthesized by a one-step room-temperature ultrasound synthesis in ionic liquid. The samples we gathered are characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, nitrogen adsorption, UV–vis diffuse reflectance, Raman and IR spectroscopy and their capability in photocatalytic hydrogen evolution and methylene blue degradation was tested. Powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopic investigations revealed the products to crystallize in the cubic perovskite structure. SEM observations showed that the obtained CaTiO 3 consists of nanospheres, BaTiO 3 of raspberry-like shaped particles of 20 nm in diameter. SrTiO 3 particles have cubic-like morphology with an edge length varying from 100 to 300 nm. SrTiO 3 exhibited the highest catalytic activity for photocatalytic H 2 evolution using only 0.025 wt.% Rh as co-catalyst and for the degradation of methylene blue under UV irradiation. The influence of parameters such as synthesis method, calcination temperature, and doping with nitrogen on the morphology, crystallinity, chemical composition, and photocatalytic acivity of SrTiO 3 was studied. Heating the as-prepared SrTiO 3 to 700 °C for extended time leads to a decrease in surface area and catalytic activity. Ionothermal prepared SrTiO 3 exhibits a higher activity than sonochemically prepared one without co-catalyst due to a synergistic effect of anatase which is present in small amount as a by-phase. Furthermore, after photodeposition of Rh, however, the activity is lower than that of the sonochemically prepared SrTiO 3 . Nitrogen-doped SrTiO 3 showed photocatalytic acivity under visible light irradiation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2015

Formation of a Fluorous/Organic Biphasic Supramolecular Octopus Assembly for Enhanced Porphyrin Phosphorescence in Air

The trinuclear triangle-shaped system [tris{3,5-bis(heptafluoropropyl)-1,2,4-triazolatosilver(I)}] (1) and the multi-armed square-shaped metalloporphyrin PtOEP or the free porphyrin base H2OEP serve as excellent octopus hosts (OEP=2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethyl-21H,23H-porphine). Coupling of the fluorous/organic molecular octopi 1 and H2OEP or PtOEP by strong quadrupole-quadrupole and metal- interactions affords the supramolecular assemblies [1PtOEP] or [1H(2)OEP] (2a), which feature nanoscopic cavities surrounding the upper triangular and lower square cores. The fluorous/organic biphasic configuration of [1PtOEP] leads to an increase in the phosphorescence of PtOEP under ambient conditions. Guest molecules can be included in the biphasic double-octopus assembly in three different site-selective modes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Local Cation-Ordered Superlattice Stabilizing Ni-Rich Single-Crystalline Cathodes

Ni-rich single-crystalline cathodes are pivotal for advancing lithium-ion battery technology due to their high energy density and mechanical stability. However, Ni-rich single-crystalline particles face intrinsic structural heterogeneity due to excessively high sintering temperature required to shape micron-sized morphologies─typically over 150 °C above the polycrystalline optimum, leading to rapid electrochemical decay and unsatisfied rate performance that hinder their practical application. Here, in this work, we propose a lithium-deficient presintering strategy to synthesize cation-ordered single-crystalline LiNi 0.83 Co 0.12 Mn 0.05 O 2 (S-NCM83), effectively minimizing lattice chemical heterogeneity and defect formation. The resulting cation-ordered percolation network enhances the structural stability of the bulk, reduces the energy barrier for Li + migration, and stabilizes Li + diffusion pathways. Consequently, S-NCM83 demonstrates significantly improved cycling stability across various operating temperatures and achieves exceptional rate performance, delivering 206 mAh g –1 at 0.1 C and 170 mAh g –1 at 5 C, without requiring surface coatings or doping. This work introduces a universal strategy to address the long-standing structural instability issues in single-crystalline cathodes, paving the way for simplified and scalable approaches to long-life and high-energy lithium-ion batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2015

Nanomaterials in Biomedicine

Nowadays, nanomaterials have become an emerging field that has shown great promise in the development of novel diagnostic, imaging and therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, due to their nanoscale size effects and increased surface area. In comparison to their larger counterparts, nanomaterials have unique physicochemical and biological properties including size, shape, chemical composition, surface structure and charge, aggregation and agglomeration, and solubility which can affect their interactions with biomolecules and cells. In addition, nanoparticles (NPs) with size-tunable light emission have demonstrated an impressive potential as high-efficiency delivery transporters for biomolecules into cells, being used to produce exceptional images of tumor sites. Moreover, NPs delivery system has been widely applied in pharmaceutical field to enhance absorption of bioactive compounds since they can interact with several phytochemicals by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions to encapsulate these phytochemicals in NPs and thus enhance aqueous solubility of the chemicals. Moreover, NPs also can prevent against oxidation/degradation of the phytochemicals encapsulated in the gastrointestinal tract and can be taken directly up by epithelial cells in the small intestine resulting in the increase of absorption and bioavailability of phytochemicals. In general, there are two specific fields of utilization of intrinsically active NPs as pharmacologic agents including oxidative-related pathologies and cancer. On the other hand, Redox active NPs have been shown to ameliorate many clinically relevant pathological disorders that implicate oxidative stress, reducing the oxidative burden and alleviating many important symptoms. In additionuch NPs act either in a catalytic way resembling the action of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase, or as activating surfaces to facilitate reactions between the aqueous environment and the reactive oxygen species present at high level in the pathological tissues. In anticancer therapies, metal and metal oxide NPs are being used experimentally to directly kill tumor cells e.g., allowing extremely localized thermoablation by transforming applied magnetic fields into strong hyperthermia, or performing efficient photodynamic therapies able to reach even the internal tissues by transforming a penetrating infrared radiation into visible light inside the tumor. Moreover, NPs made of heavy atoms are able to react to irradiation producing cytocidal reactive oxygen species, consequently increasing the proapototic effects of radiotherapies once correctly localized at the site of the tumor. One of the most important applications of NPs in medicine is the controlled drug release. Sustained (or continuous) release drug delivery system involves NPs that release drugs at a controlled rate, by diffusion or degradation of the structure of the nanoparticle over time]. Other nano drug delivery approaches are focused on crossing certain physical barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, or on finding alternative and acceptable routes for the delivery of a new generation of drugs based on proteins to be used through the gastrointestinal tract and prevent degradation. However, a successful system for the transfer of drugs needs to demonstrate optimal drug loading and good qualities of its release, a long duration in storage and low toxicity. On the other hand, carbon-based nanostructured materials, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nanodiamonds (NDs), have demonstrated to be highly promising materials for designing and fabricating nanoelectrodes and substrates for cell growth, by virtue of their peerless optical, electrical, thermal and mechanical properties. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the basis of innovative and unprecedented techniques, offering unimaginable potential for the benefit of patients and new markets, companies that manufacture pharmaceuticals, and drug delivery systems.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2012

GENERALIZED SEMI-ANALYTICAL MODELS OF SUPERNOVA LIGHT CURVES

We present generalized supernova (SN) light curve (LC) models for a variety of power inputs including the previously proposed ideas of radioactive decay of {sup 56}Ni and {sup 56}Co and magnetar spin-down. We extend those solutions to include finite progenitor radius and stationary photospheres as might be the case for SN that are powered by interaction of the ejecta with circumstellar matter (CSM). We provide an expression for the power input that is produced by self-similar forward and reverse shocks that efficiently convert their kinetic energy into radiation. We find that this ejecta-CSM interaction luminosity that we derive is in agreement with results from multi-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics simulations in the case of an optically thin CSM. We develop a semi-analytical model for the case of an optically thick CSM by invoking an approximation for the effects of radiative diffusion similar to that adopted by Arnett for SN II and compare this model to the results of numerical radiation hydrodynamics models. This model can give complex LCs, but for monotonically declining shock input, the LCs have a smooth rise, peak, and decline. In the context of this model, we provide predictions of the shock breakout of the forward shock from the optically thick part of the CSM envelope. We also introduce a hybrid LC model that incorporates ejecta-CSM interaction plus {sup 56}Ni and {sup 56}Co radioactive decay input. We fit this hybrid model to the LC of the super-luminous supernova (SLSN) 2006gy. We find that shock heating produced by ejecta-CSM interaction plus some contribution from radioactive decay provides a better fit to the LC of this event than previously presented models. We also address the relation between SN IIL and SN IIn with ejecta-CSM interaction models. The faster decline of SN IIL can be reproduced by the diffusion of previously deposited shock power if the shock power input to the diffusive component vanishes when the reverse shock sweeps up the whole ejecta and/or the forward shock propagates through the optically thick CSM. A CSM interaction with forward and reverse shock power input can produce the LCs of SN IIn in terms of duration, shape, and decline rate, depending on the properties of the CSM envelope and the progenitor star. This model can also produce LCs that are symmetric in shape around peak luminosity, which is the case for the observed LCs of some recently discovered peculiar transient events. We conclude that the observed LC variety of SN IIn and of some SLSNe is likely to be a byproduct of the large range of conditions relevant to significant ejecta-CSM interaction as a power source.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Ion–Molecule Complex Dissociation and Formation Dynamics in LiCl Aqueous Solutions from 2D IR Spectroscopy

Ion–molecule complex dynamics as well as water dynamics in concentrated lithium chloride (LiCl) solutions are examined using ultrafast two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy with the CN stretching mode of methyl thiocyanate (MeSCN) as the vibrational probe. In pure water, MeSCN has a narrow symmetric absorption line shape. 2D IR spectral diffusion measurements of the CN stretch give the identical time dependence of water dynamics, as previously observed using the OD stretch of HOD in H 2 O. In concentrated LiCl solutions, the IR absorption spectrum of MeSCN displays two distinct peaks, one corresponding to water H-bonded to the N lone pair of MeSCN (W) and the other corresponding to Li + associated with the N (L). These two species are in equilibrium, and switching of the CN bonding partner from Li + to H 2 O and vice versa was observed and explicated with 2D IR chemical exchange spectroscopy. The MeSCN·Li + complex dissociation time constant, τ LW , and the MeSCN·H 2 O dissociation time constant, τ WL , were determined. The observed τ LW chemical exchange dissociation time constant changes from 60 to 40 ps as the LiCl concentration decreases from ~10.7 to ~7.7 M, mainly due to the increase of the water concentration as the LiCl concentration is reduced. The observed time constants are independent of the model for the chemical reaction. With the assumption of a simple chemical equation, MeSCN·Li + + H 2 O ⇌ MeSCN·H 2 O + Li + , the equilibrium equation rate constants were obtained from the observed chemical exchange time constants. It was determined that the equilibrium rate constants barely change even though the viscosity changes by a factor of 2 and the ionic strength changes by a factor of 1.4. Extrapolation to dilute LiCl solution estimates the τ LW to be ~30 ps. The orientational relaxation (anisotropy decay) of both the W and L complexes was measured using polarization selective 2D IR experiments. The lithium-bonded species undergoes orientational relaxation ~3 times slower than the water-bonded species in each LiCl solution studied. In conclusion, the difference demonstrates the distinct interactions with the medium experienced by the neutral and charged species in the concentrated salt solutions.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗