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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Solvation Rule for Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Enabler in Lithium-Metal Batteries

Despite the exceptionally high energy density of lithium metal anodes, the practical application of lithium-metal batteries (LMBs) is still impeded by the instability of the interphase between the lithium metal and the electrolyte. To formulate a functional electrolyte system that can stabilize the lithium-metal anode, the solvation behavior of the solvent molecules must be understood because the electrochemical properties of a solvent can be heavily influenced by its solvation status. Here, we unambiguously demonstrated the solvation rule for the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) enabler in an electrolyte system. In this study, fluoroethylene carbonate was used as the SEI enabler due to its ability to form a robust SEI on the lithium metal surface, allowing relatively stable LMB cycling. The results revealed that the solvation number of fluoroethylene carbonate must be ≥ 1 to ensure the formation of a stable SEI in which the sacrificial reduction of the SEI enabler subsequently leads to the stable cycling of LMBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Stabilizing the Solid‐Electrolyte Interphase with Polyacrylamide for High‐Voltage Aqueous Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Abstract The introduction of “water‐in‐salt” electrolyte (WiSE) concept opens a new horizon to aqueous electrochemistry that is benefited from the formation of a solid‐electrolyte interphase (SEI). However, such SEI still faces multiple challenges, including dissolution, mechanical damaging, and incessant reforming, which result in poor cycling stability. Here, we report a polymeric additive, polyacrylamide (PAM) that effectively stabilizes the interphase in WiSE. With the addition of 5 molar % PAM to 21 mol kg −1 LiTFSI electrolyte, a LiMn 2 O 4 ∥L‐TiO 2 full cell exhibits enhanced cycling stability with 86 % capacity retention after 100 cycles at 1 C. The formation mechanism and evolution of PAM‐assisted SEI was investigated using operando small angle neutron scattering and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, which reveal that PAM minimizes the presence of free water molecules at the anode/electrolyte interface, accelerates the TFSI − anion decomposition, and densifies the SEI.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Electron energy levels determining cathode electrolyte interphase formation

Cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) has a significant impact on the performance of rechargeable batteries and is gaining increasing attention. Understanding the fundamental and detailed CEI formation mechanism is of critical importance for battery chemistry. Herein, a diverse of characterization tools are utilized to comprehensively analyze the composition of the CEI layer as well as its formation mechanism by LiCoO 2 (LCO) cathode. We reveal that CEI is mainly composed of the reduction products of electrolyte and it only parasitizes the degraded LCO surface which has transformed into a disordered spinel structure due to oxygen loss and lithium depletion. Based on the energy diagram and the chemical potential analysis, the CEI formation process has been well explained, and the proposed CEI formation mechanism is further experimentally validated. This work highlights that the CEI formation process is nearly identical to that of the anode-electrolyte-interphase, both of which are generated due to the electrolyte directly in contact with the low chemical potential electrode material. This work can deepen and refresh our understanding of CEI.

LiCoO2↗
DOE OSTI2023

Bending and shear improvements in 3D-printed core sandwich composites through modification of resin uptake in the skin/core interphase region

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) printed polymers are rarely used as a structural material due to anisotropic and low mechanical properties compared with conventional composites. In recent years, greater need has been expressed for recycling of materials, such as recyclable FDM, at the end of service life to reduce environmental pollution and manufacture cost. However, how the amount of resin uptake in the skin and skin/core interphase affects the bending and shear performance of the sandwich composites when replacing the low strength and ductile core (conventional core) with a high strength and brittle core (FDM printed PLA (polylactic acid) core) still remains unclear. A new manufacturing routine is needed to improve the incorporation of FDM printed polymers in composite structures. In this work, FDM printed PLA was used as core material and sandwiched between two unidirectional glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) skins to form a sandwich composite by compression-molding (CM) process, which provides a good manufacturing strategy for skin/core interphase modification. The significance of the CM process is proved by investigating the effect of resin uptake on bending and in-plane/out-of-plane shear performances. Current first order shear deformation (FSDT) theory lacks a direct connection between the in-plane shear stress and out-of-shear stress in the core region of sandwich composites. With the help of DIC, a connection between the in-plane shear and the out-of-plane shear strain was built and in-plane shear properties can acquire through out-of-plane shear properties, hence reducing the redundancy of sample preparation or the need for simulation. A significant improvement was found compared with the optimized resin uptake (Optimized resin uptake range: 20.43%–22.86 wt%) 3D-printed PLA core sandwich composite and lowest performance sandwich composite (Improvement: in-plane shear strength (~34%)/modulus (~29%), out-of-plane shear strength (~25%)/modulus (~31%), specific peak bending load (~19%)). Finally, compared with balsa core sandwich composites, the 3D-printed cores are suitable for use in composite sandwich structures in many applications with a satisfactory strength-to-weight ratio.

3D-printed core sandwich composite↗
DOE OSTI2022

Role of Coatings as Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphases on Lithium Metal Self-Discharge

Artificial solid electrolyte interphases have provided a path to improved cycle life for high energy density, next-generation anodes like lithium metal. Although long cycle life is necessary for widespread implementation, understanding and mitigating the effects of aging and self-discharge are also required. In this report we investigate several coating materials and their role in calendar life aging of lithium. We find that the oxide coatings are electronically passivating whereas the LiF coating slows charge transfer kinetics. Furthermore, the Coulombic loss during self-discharge measurements improves with the oxide layers and worsens with the LiF layer. It is found that none of the coatings create a continuous conformal, electronically passivating layer on top of the deposited lithium nor are they likely to distribute evenly through a porous deposit, suggesting that none of the materials are acting as an artificial solid electrolyte interphase. Instead, they likely alter performance through modulating lithium nucleation and growth.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Binary Cation Matrix Electrolyte and Its Effect on Solid Electrolyte Interphase Suppression and Evolution of Si Anode

An unstable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) has been recognized as one of the biggest challenges to commercializing silicon (Si) anodes for high-energy-density batteries. This work thoroughly investigates a binary cation matrix of Mg 2+ +Li + electrolyte and its role in SEI development, suppression, and evolution of a Si anode. Findings demonstrate that introducing Mg ions dramatically reduces the SEI growth before lithiation occurs, primarily due to the suppression of solvent reduction, particularly ethylene carbonate (EC) reduction. The Mg 2+ alters the Li + cation solvation environment as EC preferably participates in the oxophyllic Mg 2+ solvation sheath, thereby altering the solvent reduction process, resulting in a distinct SEI formation mechanism. The initial SEI formation before lithiation is reduced by 70% in the electrolyte with the presence of Mg 2+ cations. While the SEI continues to develop in the postlithiation, the inclusion of Mg ions results in an approximately 80% reduction in the postlithiation SEI growth. Continuous electrochemical cycling reveals that Mg 2+ plays a crucial role in stabilizing the deep-lithiated Si phases, which effectively mitigates side reactions, resulting in controlled SEI growth and stable interphase while eliminating complex Li x Si y formation. Mg ions promote the development of a notably more rigid and homogeneous SEI, characterized by a reduced dissipation (ΔD) in the Mg 2+ +Li + ion matrix compared to the solely Li + system. In conclusion, this report reveals how the Mg 2+ +Li + ion matrix affects the SEI evolution, viscoelastic properties, and electrochemical behavior at the Si interface in real time, laying the groundwork for devising strategies to enhance the performance and longevity of Si-based next-generation battery systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Reversible Switch in Charge Storage Enabled by Selective Ion Transport in Solid Electrolyte Interphase

Solid-electrolyte interphases (SEIs) in advanced rechargeable batteries ensure reversible electrode reactions at extreme potentials beyond the thermodynamic stability limits of electrolytes by insulating electrons while allowing working ions to transport. Such selective ion transport occurs naturally in biological cell membranes as a ubiquitous prerequisite of many life processes and a foundation of biodiversity. In addition, cell membranes can selectively open and close the ion channels in response to external stimuli (e.g., electrical, chemical, mechanical, thermal), giving rise to “gating” mechanisms that help manage intracellular reactions. We wondered whether the chemistry and structure of SEIs can mimic cell membranes, such that ion gating can be replicated. That is, can SEIs realize a reversible switching between two electrochemical behaviors, i.e., the ion intercalation chemistry of batteries and the ion adsorption of capacitors? Herein, we report such SEIs that result in thermally activated selective ion transport. The function of open/close gate switches is governed by the chemical and structural dynamics of SEIs under different thermal conditions, with precise behaviors as conducting and insulating interphases that enable battery and capacitive processes within a finite temperature window. Such an ion gating function is synergistically contributed by Arrhenius-activated ion transport and SEI dissolution/regrowth. Following the understanding of this new mechanism, we then develop an electrochemical method to heal the SEI layer in situ. As a result, the knowledge acquired in this work reveals the possibility of hitherto unknown biomimetic properties of SEIs, which will guide us to leverage such complexities to design better SEIs for future battery chemistries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tuning Solid Electrolyte Interphase Formation before Plating Onset in Anode-Free Sodium Batteries

Sodium (Na) batteries are of growing interest due to the higher earth abundance of sodium than lithium, as well as their promising theoretical energy density when metallic Na anodes are used. However, Na plating and stripping are heavily influenced by the physicochemical properties of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which is directly influenced by the solvent and salt used for the electrolyte. While most studies focus on the SEI that forms on the surface of Na metal after plating, we expand this analysis by identifying a nanoscale “pre-plating” SEI that forms on the current collector (CC) prior to the onset of Na plating. Here, we systematically investigate an array of Na salt and glyme solvents in the electrolyte and determine the associated impacts on pre-plating SEI formation on aluminum CCs. By combining analytical electrochemistry approaches with a multimodal suite of spectroscopy techniques (X-ray, infrared, and Raman), supported by density functional theory calculations, we reveal a direct correlation between the Na + coordination environment and pre-plating SEI composition. We find that longer-chain glymes produce larger proportions of organic alkoxide products in the interphase, consistent with increased Na + −glyme interactions, while the fraction of salt-derived inorganic products (e.g., NaF) correlates with Na + −anion coordination. These insights highlight the critical influence of electrolyte composition particularly solvent identity and Na + coordination on the initial SEI formation in anode-free Na batteries.

anode-free batteries↗
DOE OSTI2024

Self-terminating, heterogeneous solid–electrolyte interphase enables reversible Li–ether cointercalation in graphite anodes

Ether solvents are suitable for formulating solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI)-less ion-solvent cointercalation electrolytes in graphite for Na-ion and K-ion batteries. However, ether-based electrolytes have been historically perceived to cause exfoliation of graphite and cell failure in Li-ion batteries. In this study, we develop strategies to achieve reversible Li–solvent cointercalation in graphite through combining appropriate Li salts and ether solvents. Specifically, we design 1M LiBF 4 1,2-dimethoxyethane (G1), which enables natural graphite to deliver ~91% initial Coulombic efficiency and >88% capacity retention after 400 cycles. We captured the spatial distribution of LiF at various length scales and quantified its heterogeneity. The electrolyte shows self-terminated reactivity on graphite edge planes and results in a grainy, fluorinated pseudo-SEI. The molecular origin of the pseudo-SEI is elucidated by ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations. The operando synchrotron analyses further demonstrate the reversible and monotonous phase transformation of cointercalated graphite. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of Li cointercalation chemistry in graphite for extreme-condition batteries. The work also paves the foundation for understanding and modulating the interphase generated by ether electrolytes in a broad range of electrodes and batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Revealing the roles of the solid–electrolyte interphase in designing stable, fast-charging, low-temperature Li-ion batteries

Designing the solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) is critical for stable, fast-charging, low-temperature Li-ion batteries. Fostering a “fluorinated interphase,” SEI enriched with LiF, has become a popular design strategy. Although LiF possesses low Li-ion conductivity, many studies have reported favorable battery performance with fluorinated SEIs. Such a contradiction suggests that optimizing SEI must extend beyond chemical composition design to consider spatial distributions of different chemical species. In this work, we demonstrate that the impact of a fluorinated SEI on battery performance should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Sufficiently passivating the anode surface without impeding Li-ion transport is key. We reveal that a fluorinated SEI containing excessive and dense LiF severely impedes Li-ion transport. In contrast, a fluorinated SEI with well-dispersed LiF (i.e., small LiF aggregates well mixed with other SEI components) is advantageous, presumably due to the enhanced Li-ion transport across heterointerfaces between LiF and other SEI components. An electrolyte, 1 M LiPF 6 in 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran (2MeTHF), yields a fluorinated SEI with dispersed LiF. This electrolyte allows anodes of graphite, μSi/graphite composite, and pure Si to all deliver a stable Coulombic efficiency of 99.9% and excellent rate capability at low temperatures. Pouch cells containing layered cathodes also demonstrate impressive cycling stability over 1,000 cycles and exceptional rate capability down to −20 °C. Through experiments and theoretical modeling, we have identified a balanced SEI-based approach that achieves stable, fast-charging, low-temperature Li-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Bi-Layer Dense/Porous Solid Electrolyte Interphase for Enhanced Lithium-Metal Stability

Due to its high theoretical capacity and low electrochemical potential, lithium metal is a highly investigated anode for next-generation high-energy batteries. However, the unstable chemical and topographical heterogeneous surface of lithium gives rise to safety and efficiency concerns that prevent it from being utilized in practical applications. Exposure to electrolyte leads to non-uniform, mixed organic-inorganic solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, starting a cascading to non-uniform flux distribution, consumption of active materials, and dendrite growth. The SEI is the key feature that will lead to harnessing the capabilities possible with lithium metal. In this work, the formation of a closed-host bi-layer solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) improves the stability of lithium anode. This is successfully realized by forming an interconnected porous LiF-rich artificial SEI in contact with Li metal, and a dense, stable in-situ formed upper layer SEI. The porous layer increases the number of Li/LiF interfaces, which reduces local volume fluctuations and improves Li+ diffusion along these interfaces. Additionally, the tortuous porous structure guides uniform Li+ flux distribution and mechanically suppresses dendrite propagation. The dense upper layer of the SEI accomplishes a closed-host design through reaction with LiNO3 additive and prevents continuous consumption of active materials seen without the additive included in the electrolyte. The duality of a dense top layer with porous bottom layer led to extended cycle life and improved rate performance, evidenced with symmetric cell testing, as well as full cell testing paired with sulfur and LiFePO4 (LFP) cathodes. This work is a good example of a rational design of the SEI, based on comprehensive consideration of various critical factors to improve Li-metal anode stability, and highlights a new pathway to improve cycling and rate performances of Li metal batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Quantifying Lithium Ion Exchange in Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) on Graphite Anode Surfaces

Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) has been identified as the most important and least understood component in lithium-ion batteries. Despite extensive studies in the past two decades, a few mysteries remain: what is the chemical form of and degree of mobility of Li + in the interphase? What fraction of Li + is permanently immobilized in the SEI, while the rest are still able to participate in the cell reactions via the ion-exchange process with Li + in the electrolyte? This study attempted to answer, in part, these questions by using 6 Li and 7 Li-isotopes to label SEIs and electrolytes, and then quantifying the distribution of permanently immobilized and ion-exchangeable Li + with solid-state NMR and ToF-SIMS. The results showed that the majority of Li + were exchanged after one SEI formation cycle, and a complete exchange after 25 cycles. Ion exchange by diffusion based on concentration gradient in the absence of applied potential also occurred simultaneously. This knowledge will provide a foundation for not only understanding but also designing better SEIs for future battery chemistries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Electronic and Structural Properties of the Polymer-Electrolyte Interphase in Electrochemically Doped Polymers

The advance of soft, polymer-based (photo)electrochemical energy transformation and storage applications requires a framework for polymer and electrolyte design that includes a deep understanding of the polymer–electrolyte interphase. Here, we report on the investigations of two napthalenediimide (NDI)–bithiophene (T2)-based semiconducting copolymers using computational modeling and in situ, ex situ, and operando techniques to reveal how changes in electrolyte and polymer chemistry modulate the electronic and structural properties of polymer electrodes during electrochemical (de)doping. These systems are shown to host an ensemble of polarons, in contrast with the single polaron-like character often reported, whose properties vary with the nature of the local environment. Importantly, these polarons serve as reporters of the nanoscale environments in which they reside. We demonstrate that controlling the polymer and electrolyte chemistry regulates the nature of the charge carriers generated upon electrochemical doping and/or exciton dissociation in a photoelectrochemical solar cell: For instance, divalent counterions enable polaron and bipolaron formation at lower reducing potentials, while supporting more bipolaron formation than monovalent counterions. A novel application of NEXAFS reveals insights into charge (de)localization, providing a pathway for future investigation of electron transport mechanisms. Finally, simulations of polymer swelling of an amorphous interphase show that charge formation has a large impact on polymer swelling and ion penetration. These studies deliver insights to enable the control of charge-carrier and ion transport, the rates of electron transfer and catalytic efficiency, device stability, and overall device performance.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Control of Two Solid Electrolyte Interphases at the Negative Electrode of an Anode‐Free All Solid‐State Battery based on Argyrodite Electrolyte

Abstract Anode‐free all solid‐state batteries (AF‐ASSBs) employ “empty” current collector with three active interfaces that determine electrochemical stability; lithium metal – Solid electrolyte (SE) interphase (SEI‐1), lithium – current collector interface, and collector – SE interphase (SEI‐2). Argyrodite Li 6 PS 5 Cl (LPSCl) solid electrolyte (SE) displays SEI‐2 containing copper sulfides, formed even at open circuit. Bilayer of 140 nm magnesium/30 nm tungsten (Mg/W‐Cu) controls the three interfaces and allows for state‐of‐the‐art electrochemical performance in half‐cells and fullcells. AF‐ASSB with NMC811 cathode achieves 150 cycles with Coulombic efficiency (CE) above 99.8%. With high mass‐loading cathode (8.6 mAh cm −2 ), AF‐ASSB retains 86.5% capacity after 45 cycles at 0.2C. During electrodeposition of Li, gradient Li‐Mg solid solution is formed, which reverses upon electrodissolution. This promotes conformal wetting/dewetting by Li and stabilizes SEI‐1 by lowering thermodynamic driving force for SE reduction. Inert refractory W underlayer is required to prevent ongoing formation of SEI‐2 that also drives electrochemical degradation. Inert Mo and Nb layers likewise protect Cu from corroding, while Li‐alloying layers (Mg, Sn) are less effective due to ongoing volume changes and associated pulverization. Mechanistic explanation for observed Li segregation within alloying Li x Mg layer is provided through mesoscale modelling, considering opposing roles of diffusivity differences and interfacial stresses.

Wang, Yixian [Materials Science and Engineering Pr↗
DOE OSTI2020

Solvation Rule for Solid‐Electrolyte Interphase Enabler in Lithium‐Metal Batteries

Abstract Despite the exceptionally high energy density of lithium metal anodes, the practical application of lithium‐metal batteries (LMBs) is still impeded by the instability of the interphase between the lithium metal and the electrolyte. To formulate a functional electrolyte system that can stabilize the lithium‐metal anode, the solvation behavior of the solvent molecules must be understood because the electrochemical properties of a solvent can be heavily influenced by its solvation status. We unambiguously demonstrated the solvation rule for the solid‐electrolyte interphase (SEI) enabler in an electrolyte system. In this study, fluoroethylene carbonate was used as the SEI enabler due to its ability to form a robust SEI on the lithium metal surface, allowing relatively stable LMB cycling. The results revealed that the solvation number of fluoroethylene carbonate must be ≥1 to ensure the formation of a stable SEI in which the sacrificial reduction of the SEI enabler subsequently leads to the stable cycling of LMBs.

Su, Chi‐Cheung↗
DOE OSTI2021

Stabilizing the Solid‐Electrolyte Interphase with Polyacrylamide for High‐Voltage Aqueous Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Abstract The introduction of “water‐in‐salt” electrolyte (WiSE) concept opens a new horizon to aqueous electrochemistry that is benefited from the formation of a solid‐electrolyte interphase (SEI). However, such SEI still faces multiple challenges, including dissolution, mechanical damaging, and incessant reforming, which result in poor cycling stability. Here, we report a polymeric additive, polyacrylamide (PAM) that effectively stabilizes the interphase in WiSE. With the addition of 5 molar % PAM to 21 mol kg −1 LiTFSI electrolyte, a LiMn 2 O 4 ∥L‐TiO 2 full cell exhibits enhanced cycling stability with 86 % capacity retention after 100 cycles at 1 C. The formation mechanism and evolution of PAM‐assisted SEI was investigated using operando small angle neutron scattering and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, which reveal that PAM minimizes the presence of free water molecules at the anode/electrolyte interface, accelerates the TFSI − anion decomposition, and densifies the SEI.

Hou, Xu↗
DOE OSTI2024

Multiple Functional Bonds Integrated Interphases for Long Cycle Sodium-Ion Batteries

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have garnered significant interest as one of the most promising energy suppliers for power grid energy storage. However, the poor electrode/electrolyte interfacial stability leads to continual electrolyte decomposition and transition metal dissolution, resulting in rapid performance degradation of SIBs. In this work, we propose a strategy integrating multiple functional bonds to regulate electrode/electrolyte interphase by triple-coupling of succinonitrile (SN), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF 6 ) and fluorinated ethylene carbonate (FEC). Theoretical calculation and experiment results show that the solvation structure of Na + and ClO 4 – is effectively reconfigured by the solvated FEC, SN and PF 6 – in PC-based carbonate electrolyte. The newly developed electrolyte demonstrates increased Na + -FEC coordination, weakened interaction of Na + -PC and participation of SN and PF 6 – anions in solvation, resulting in the formation of a conformal interfacial layer comprising of sodium oxynitrides (NaN x O y ), sodium fluoride (NaF) and phosphorus oxide compounds (NaP x O y ). Consequently, a 3 Ah pouch full cell of hard carbon//NaNi 1/3 Fe 1/3 Mn 1/3 O 2 exhibits an excellent capacity retention of 90.4 % after 1000 cycles. Detailed postmortem analysis of interface chemistry is further illustrated by multiple characterization methods. Finally, this study provides a new avenue for developing electrolyte formulations with multiple functional bonds integrated interphases to significantly improve the long-term cycling stability of SIBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhanced Radiation Damage Tolerance of Amorphous Interphase and Grain Boundary Complexions in Cu-Ta

Amorphous interfacial complexions are particularly resistant to radiation damage and have been primarily studied in alloys with good glass-forming ability, yet recent reports suggest that these features can form even in immiscible alloys such as Cu-Ta under irradiation. In this work, the mechanisms of damage production and annihilation due to primary knock-on atom collisions are investigated for amorphous interphase and grain boundaries in a Cu-Ta alloy using atomistic simulations. Amorphous complexions, in particular amorphous interphase complexions that separate Cu and Ta grains, result in less residual defect damage than their ordered counterparts. Stemming from the nanophase chemical separation in this alloy, the amorphous complexions exhibit a highly heterogeneous distribution of atomic excess volume, as compared to a good glass former like Cu-Zr. Complexion thickness, a tunable structural descriptor, plays a vital role in damage resistance. Thicker interfacial films are more damage-tolerant because they alter the defect production rate due to differences in intrinsic displacement threshold energies during the collision cascade. Overall, the findings of this work highlight the importance of interfacial engineering in enhancing the properties of materials operating in radiation-prone environments and the promise of amorphous complexions as particularly radiation damage-tolerant microstructural features.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗