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NASA NTRS1992

Water Relations, Gas Exchange, and Nutrient Response to a Long Term Constant Water Deficit

Wheat plants (Triticum aestivum) were grown for 43 days in a micro-porous tube nutrient delivery system. Roots were unable to penetrate the microporous tube, but grew on the surface and maintained capillary contact with the nutrient solution on the inside of the tube through the 5-micron pores of the porous tube. Water potential in the system was controlled at -0.4, -0.8, and -3.0 kPa by adjusting the applied pressure (hydrostatic head) to the nutrient solution flowing through the microporous tubes. A relatively small decrease in applied water potential from -0.4 to -3.0 kPa resulted in a 34% reduction of shoot growth but only a moderate reduction in the midday leaf water potential from -1.3 to -1.7 MPa. Carbon dioxide assimilation decreased and water use efficiency increased with the more negative applied water potentials, while intercellular CO2 concentration remained constant. This was associated with a decrease in stomatal conductance to water vapor from 1.90 to 0.98 mol/(sq m sec) and a decrease in total apparent hydraulic conductance from 47 to 12 (micro)mol/(sec MPa). Although the applied water potentials were in the -0.4 to -3.0 kPa range, the actual water potential perceived by the plant roots appeared to be in the range of -0.26 to -0.38 MPa as estimated by the leaf water potential of bagged plants. The amount of K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, and B accumulated with each unit of transpired water increased as the applied water potential became less negative. The increase in accumulation ranged from 1.4-fold for K to 2.2-fold for B. The physiological responses observed in this study in response to small constant differences in applied water potentials were much greater than expected from either the applied water potential or the observed plant water potential. Even though the micro-porous tube may not represent natural conditions and could possibly introduce morphological and physiological artifacts, it enables a high degree of control of water potential that facilitates the investigation of many aspects of water relations not practical with other experimental systems.

Berry, Wade L.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA): Identifying the Hazards of the Martian Soil

Sometime in the next decade NASA will decide whether to send a human expedition to explore the planet Mars. The Mars Environmental Compatibility Assessment (MECA) has been selected by NASA to evaluate the Martian environment for soil and dust hazards to human exploration. The integrated MECA payload contains three elements: a wet-chemistry laboratory, a microscopy station, and enhancements to a lander robot-arm system incorporating arrays of material patches and an electrometer to identify triboelectric charging during soil excavation. The wet-chemistry laboratory will evaluate samples of Martian soil in water to determine the total dissolved solids, redox potential, pH, and quantify the concentration of many soluble ions using ion-selective electrodes. These electrodes can detect potentially dangerous heavy-metal ions, emitted pathogenic gases, and the soil's corrosive potential. MECA's microscopy station combines optical and atomic-force microscopy with a robot-arm camera to provide imaging over nine orders of magnitude, from meters to nanometers. Soil particle properties including size, shape, color, hardness, adhesive potential (electrostatic and magnetic), will be determined on the microscope stage using an ar-ray of sample receptacles and collection substrates, and an abrasion tool,. The simple, rugged atomic-force microscope will image in the submicron size range and has the capability of performing a particle-by-particle analysis of the dust and soil. Although selected by NASA's Human Exploration and Development of Space Enterprise, the MECA instrument suite also has the capability to address basic geology, paleoclimate, and exobiology issues. To understand both contemporaneous and ancient processes on Mars, the mineralogical, petrological, and reactivity of Martian surface materials should be constrained: the NMCA experiment will shed light on these quantities through its combination of chemistry and microscopy. On Earth, the earliest forms of life are preserved as microfossils. The atomic-force microscope will have the required resolution to image down to the scale of terrestrial microfossils and beyond.

Meloy, T. P.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Management of hypophosphatemia

The etiology, clinical presentation, and management of hypophosphatemia are reviewed. Phosphorus is a major intracellular anion and plays an important role in many biochemical pathways relating to normal physiologic functions. Approximately 60 to 90% of the 1 to 1.5 g of daily dietary phosphorus intake is absorbed, and of that amount, about two thirds is excreted in the urine. The overall incidence of hypophosphatemia is about 2 to 3% of all hospitalized patients. Factors associated with hypophosphatemia include phosphate-binding antacid therapy, nasogastric suction, liver disease, sepsis, alcoholism, and acidosis associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Patients receiving parenteral nutrient solutions were also at higher risk for hypophosphatemia before the routine supplementation of these formulations with phosphate. Patients with hypophosphatemia may be asymptomatic or may experience weakness, malaise, anorexia, bone pain, and respiratory arrest. The major systems involved include the neuromuscular, hematologic, and skeletal systems. Phosphorus-containing products used to treat hypophosphatemia are a combination of monobasic and dibasic phosphate salts. Therefore, it is essential to calculate doses in millimoles rather than milligrams or milliequivalents to more accurately reflect the phosphorus concentration and to avoid potentially serious dosage errors. Normal daily requirements are readily maintained by dietary sources of phosphorus such as milk products or may be supplemented by phosphate-containing products administered orally or intravenously. Since phosphorus is a key factor in many organ systems, it is essential to monitor serum phosphorus concentrations in patients at risk for hypophosphatemia.

Review, Tutorial↗

NASA NTRS2012

Kinetic Model of Electric Potentials in Localized Collisionless Plasma Structures under Steady Quasi-gyrotropic Conditions

Localized plasma structures, such as thin current sheets, generally are associated with localized magnetic and electric fields. In space plasmas localized electric fields not only play an important role for particle dynamics and acceleration but may also have significant consequences on larger scales, e.g., through magnetic reconnection. Also, it has been suggested that localized electric fields generated in the magnetosphere are directly connected with quasi-steady auroral arcs. In this context, we present a two-dimensional model based on Vlasov theory that provides the electric potential for a large class of given magnetic field profiles. The model uses an expansion for small deviation from gyrotropy and besides quasineutrality it assumes that electrons and ions have the same number of particles with their generalized gyrocenter on any given magnetic field line. Specializing to one dimension, a detailed discussion concentrates on the electric potential shapes (such as "U" or "S" shapes) associated with magnetic dips, bumps, and steps. Then, it is investigated how the model responds to quasi-steady evolution of the plasma. Finally, the model proves useful in the interpretation of the electric potentials taken from two existing particle simulations.

Schindler, K.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Forecasting Ocean Chlorophyll in the Equatorial Pacific

Using a global ocean biogeochemical model combined with a forecast of physical oceanic and atmospheric variables from the NASA Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, we assess the skill of a chlorophyll concentrations forecast in the Equatorial Pacific for the period 2012-2015 with a focus on the forecast of the onset of the 2015 El Niño event. Using a series of retrospective 9-month hindcasts, we assess the uncertainties of the forecasted chlorophyll by comparing the monthly total chlorophyll concentration from the forecast with the corresponding monthly ocean chlorophyll data from the Suomi-National Polar-orbiting Partnership Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (S-NPP VIIRS) satellite. The forecast was able to reproduce the phasing of the variability in chlorophyll concentration in the Equatorial Pacific, including the beginning of the 2015-2016 El Niño. The anomaly correlation coefficient (ACC) was significant (p less than 0.05) for forecast at 1-month (R=0.33), 8-month (R=0.42) and 9-month (R=0.41) lead times. The root mean square error (RMSE) increased from 0.0399 microgram ch1 L(exp -1) for the 1-month lead forecast to a maximum of 0.0472 microgram ch1 L(exp -1) for the 9-month lead forecast indicating that the forecast of the amplitude of chlorophyll concentration variability was getting worse. Forecasts with a 3-month lead time were on average the closest to the S-NPP VIIRS data (23% or 0.033 microgram ch1 L(exp -1)) while the forecast with a 9-month lead time were the furthest (31% or 0.042 microgram ch1 L(exp -1)). These results indicate the potential for forecasting chlorophyll concentration in this region but also highlights various deficiencies and suggestions for improvements to the current biogeochemical forecasting system. This system provides an initial basis for future applications including the effects of El Niño events on fisheries and other ocean resources given improvements identified in the analysis of these results.

Anomaly Correlation Coefficient (ACC)↗

NASA NTRS2018

Assessing the Skill of Chlorophyll Forecasts: Latest Development and Challenges Ahead Using the Case of the Equatorial Pacific

Using a global ocean biogeochemical model combined with a forecast of physical oceanic and atmospheric variables from the NASA Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, we assess the skill of a chlorophyll concentrations forecast in the Equatorial Pacific for the period 2012-2015 with a focus on the forecast of the onset of the 2015 El Nino event. Using a series of retrospective 9-month hindcasts, we assess the uncertainties of the forecasted chlorophyll by comparing the monthly total chlorophyll concentration from the forecast with the corresponding monthly ocean chlorophyll data from the Suomi-National Polar-orbiting Partnership Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (S-NPP VIIRS) satellite. The forecast was able to reproduce the phasing of the variability in chlorophyll concentration in the Equatorial Pacific, including the beginning of the 2015-2016 El Nino. The anomaly correlation coefficient (ACC) was significant (p less than 0.05) for forecast at 1-month (R=0.33), 8-month (R=0.42) and 9-month (R=0.41) lead times. The root mean square error (RMSE) increased from 0.0399 microgram chl L(exp -1) for the 1-month lead forecast to a maximum of 0.0472 microgram chl L(exp -1) for the 9-month lead forecast indicating that the forecast of the amplitude of chlorophyll concentration variability was getting worse. Forecasts with a 3-month lead time were on average the closest to the S-NPP VIIRS data (23% or 0.033 microgram chl L(exp -1)) while the forecast with a 9-month lead time were the furthest (31% or 0.042 microgram chl L(exp -1)). These results indicate the potential for forecasting chlorophyll concentration in this region but also highlights various deficiencies and suggestions for improvements to the current biogeochemical forecasting system. This system provides an initial basis for future applications including the effects of El Nino events on fisheries and other ocean resources given improvements identified in the analysis of these results.

El Nin↗

NASA NTRS1991

New Secondary Batteries Utilizing Electronically Conductive Polypyrrole Cathode

To gain a better understanding of the dynamic behavior in electronically conducting polypyrroles and to provide guidance toward designs of new secondary batteries based on these polymers, two mathematical models are developed; one for the potentiostatically controlled switching behavior of polypyrrole film, and one for the galvanostatically controlled charge/discharge behavior of lithium/polypyrrole secondary battery cell. The first model is used to predict the profiles of electrolyte concentrations, charge states, and electrochemical potentials within the thin polypyrrole film during switching process as functions of applied potential and position. Thus, the detailed mechanisms of charge transport and electrochemical reaction can be understood. Sensitivity analysis is performed for independent parameters, describing the physical and electrochemical characteristic of polypyrrole film, to verify their influences on the model performance. The values of independent parameters are estimated by comparing model predictions with experimental data obtained from identical conditions. The second model is used to predict the profiles of electrolyte concentrations, charge state, and electrochemical potentials within the battery system during charge and discharge processes as functions of time and position. Energy and power densities are estimated from model predictions and compared with existing battery systems. The independent design criteria on the charge and discharge performance of the cell are provided by studying the effects of design parameters.

Yeu, Taewhan↗

NASA NTRS2016

Resource Prospector Instrumentation for Lunar Volatiles Prospecting, Sample Acquisition and Processing

Data gathered from lunar missions within the last two decades have significantly enhanced our understanding of the volatile resources available on the lunar surface, specifically focusing on the polar regions. Several orbiting missions such as Clementine and Lunar Prospector have suggested the presence of volatile ices and enhanced hydrogen concentrations in the permanently shadowed regions of the moon. The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission was the first to provide direct measurement of water ice in a permanently shadowed region. These missions with other orbiting assets have laid the groundwork for the next step in the exploration of the lunar surface; providing ground truth data of the volatiles by mapping the distribution and processing lunar regolith for resource extraction. This next step is the robotic mission Resource Prospector (RP). Resource Prospector is a lunar mission to investigate 'strategic knowledge gaps' (SKGs) for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). The mission is proposed to land in the lunar south pole near a permanently shadowed crater. The landing site will be determined by the science team with input from broader international community as being near traversable landscape that has a high potential of containing elevated concentrations of volatiles such as water while maximizing mission duration. A rover will host the Regolith & Environment Science and Oxygen & Lunar Volatile Extraction (RESOLVE) payload for resource mapping and processing. The science instruments on the payload include a 1-meter drill, neutron spectrometer, a near infrared spectrometer, an operations camera, and a reactor with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer for volatile analysis. After the RP lander safely delivers the rover to the lunar surface, the science team will guide the rover team on the first traverse plan. The neutron spectrometer (NS) and near infrared (NIR) spectrometer instruments will be used as prospecting tools to guide the traverse path. The NS will map the water-equivalent hydrogen concentration as low as 0.5% by weight to an 80 centimeter depth as the rover traverses the lunar landscape. The NIR spectrometer will measure surficial H2O/OH as well as general mineralogy. When the prospecting instruments identify a potential volatile-rich area during the course of a traverse, the prospect is then mapped out and the most promising location identified. An augering drill capable of sampling to a depth of 100 centimeters will excavate regolith for analysis. A quick assay of the drill cuttings will be made using an operations camera and NIR spectrometer. With the water depth confirmed by this first auguring activity, a regolith sample may be extracted for processing. The drill will deliver the regolith sample to a crucible that will be sealed and heated. Evolved volatiles will be measured by a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer and the water will be captured and photographed. RP is a solar powered mission, which given the polar location translates to a relatively short mission duration on the order of 4-15 days. This short mission duration drives the concept of operations, instrumentation, and data analysis towards critical real time analysis and decision support. Previous payload field tests have increased the fidelity of the hardware, software, and mission operations. Current activities include a mission level field test to optimize interfaces between the payload and rover as well as better understand the interaction of the science and rover teams during the mission timeline. This paper will include the current status of the science instruments on the payload as well as the integrated field test occurring in fall of 2015. The concept of operations will be discussed, including the real time science and engineering decision-making process based on the critical data from the instrumentation. The path to flight will be discussed with the approach to this ambitious low cost mission.

ISRU↗

NASA NTRS1971

Study of permeability characteristics of membranes

Pressure-permeation experiments were performed with the concentration-clamp cell. Streaming potentials and hydraulic permeabilities were measured for an AMF C-103 cation-exchange membrane bounded by 0.1 N NaCl solutions. The streaming potential calculated from the slope of the recorded potential differences versus the applied pressure, yields a value of 1.895 millivolt/dekabar. When comparison with other membranes of similar characteristics could be made, good agreement was found. The values of the hydraulic permeability varied somewhat with the applied pressure difference and are between 1.3 x 10 to the minus 8th power and 3.9 x 10 to the minus 8th power sq cm/dekabar-sec. The specific hydraulic permeabilities were also calculated and compared with data from the literature. Fair agreement was found. The diffusion coefficient of the chloride ion in the AMF C-103 membrane was calculated, using Fick's first law of diffusion based on ion concentrations calculated from the Donnan equilibrium concentration of Cl(-).

Spiegler, K. S.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Resource Prospector Instrumentation for Lunar Volatiles Prospecting, Sample Acquisition and Processing

Lunar Crater↗

NASA NTRS2001

Soot Formation in Laminar Acetylene/Air Diffusion Flames at Atmospheric Pressure

The flame structure and soot-formation (soot nucleation and growth) properties of axisymmetric laminar coflowing jet diffusion flames were studied experimentally. Test conditions involved acetylene-nitrogen jets burning in coflowing air at atmospheric pressure. Measurements were limited to the axes of the flames and included soot concentrations, soot temperatures, soot structure, major gas species concentrations, radical species (H, OH, and O) concentrations, and gas velocities. The results show that as distance increases along the axes of the flames, detectable soot formation begins when significant H concentrations are present, and ends when acetylene concentrations become small. Species potentially associated with soot oxidation--O2, CO2, H2O, O, and OH-are present throughout the soot-formation region so that soot formation and oxidation proceed at the same time. Strong rates of soot growth compared to soot nucleation early in the soot-formation process, combined with increased rates of soot nucleation and oxidation as soot formation proceeds, causes primary soot particle diameters to reach a maximum relatively early in the soot-formation process. Aggregation of primary soot particles proceeds, however, until the final stages of soot oxidation. Present measurements of soot growth (corrected for soot oxidation) in laminar diffusion flames were consistent with earlier measurements of soot growth in laminar premixed flames and exhibited encouraging agreement with existing hydrogen-abstraction/carbon-addition (HACA) soot growth mechanisms in the literature that were developed based on measurements within laminar premixed flames. Measured primary soot particle nucleation rates in the present laminar diffusion flames also were consistent with corresponding rates measured in laminar premixed flames and yielded a crude correlation in terms of acetylene and H concentrations and the temperature.

Xu, F.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Soot Formation in Laminar Acetylene/Air Diffusion Flames at Atmospheric Pressure

The flame structure and soot-formation (soot nucleation and growth) properties of axisymmetric laminar coflowing jet diffusion flames were studied experimentally. Test conditions involved acetylene-nitrogen jets burning in coflowing air at atmospheric pressure. Measurements were limited to the axes of the flames and included soot concentrations, soot temperatures, soot structure, major gas species concentrations, radical species (H, OH, and O) concentrations, and gas velocities. The results show that as distance increases along the axes of the flames, detectable soot formation begins when significant H concentrations are present, and ends when acetylene concentrations become small. Species potentially associated with soot oxidation-O2, CO2, H2O, O, and OH-are present throughout the soot-formation region so that soot formation and oxidation proceed at the same time. Strong rates of soot growth compared to soot nucleation early in the soot-formation process, combined with increased rates of soot nucleation and oxidation as soot formation proceeds, causes primary soot particle diameters to reach a maximum relatively early in the soot-formation process. Aggregation of primary soot particles proceeds, however, until the final stages of soot oxidation. Present measurements of soot growth (corrected for soot oxidation) in laminar diffusion flames were consistent with earlier measurements of soot growth in laminar premixed flames and exhibited encouraging agreement with existing hydrogen-abstraction/carbon-addition (HACA) soot growth mechanisms in the literature that were developed based on measurements within laminar premixed flames. Measured primary soot particle nucleation rates in the present laminar diffusion flames also were consistent with corresponding rates measured in laminar premixed flames and yielded a crude correlation in terms of acetylene and H concentrations and the temperature.

Xu, F.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Soot Formation in Laminar Acetylene/Air Diffusion Flames at Atmospheric Pressure

The flame structure and soot-formation (soot nucleation and growth) properties of axisymmetric laminar coflowing jet diffusion flames were studied experimentally. Test conditions involved acetylene-nitrogen jets burning in coflowing air at atmospheric pressure. Measurements were limited to the axes of the flames and included soot concentrations, soot temperatures, soot structure, major gas species concentrations, radical species (H, OH, and O) concentrations, and gas velocities. The results show that as distance increases along the axes of the flames, detectable soot formation begins when significant H concentrations are present, and ends when acetylene concentrations become small. Species potentially associated with soot oxidation-O2, CO2, H2O, O, and OH-are present throughout the soot-formation region so that soot formation and oxidation proceed at the same time. Strong rates of soot growth compared to soot nucleation early in the soot-formation process, combined with increased rates of soot nucleation and oxidation as soot formation proceeds, causes primary soot particle diameters to reach a maximum relatively early in the soot-formation process. Aggregation of primary soot particles proceeds, however, until the final stages of soot oxidation. Present measurements of soot growth (corrected for soot oxidation) in laminar diffusion flames were consistent with earlier measurements of soot growth in laminar premixed flames and exhibited encouraging agreement with existing hydrogen-abstraction/carbon-addition (HACA) soot growth mechanisms in the literature that were developed based on measurements within laminar premixed flames. Measured primary soot particle nucleation rates in the present laminar diffusion flames also were consistent with corresponding rates measured in laminar premixed flames and yielded a crude correlation in terms of acetylene and H concentrations and the temperature.

Xu, F.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Sabatier Catalyst Poisoning Investigation

The Carbon Dioxide Reduction Assembly (CRA) on the International Space Station (ISS) has been operational since 2010. The CRA uses a Sabatier reactor to produce water and methane by reaction of the metabolic CO2 scrubbed from the cabin air and the hydrogen byproduct from the water electrolysis system used for metabolic oxygen generation. Incorporating the CRA into the overall air revitalization system has facilitated life support system loop closure on the ISS reducing resupply logistics and thereby enhancing longer term missions. The CRA utilizes CO2 which has been adsorbed in a 5A molecular sieve within the Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly, CDRA. There is a potential of compounds with molecular dimensions similar to, or less than CO2 to also be adsorbed. In this fashion trace contaminants may be concentrated within the CDRA and subsequently desorbed with the CO2 to the CRA. Currently, there is no provision to remove contaminants prior to entering the Sabatier catalyst bed. The risk associated with this is potential catalyst degradation due to trace organic contaminants in the CRA carbon dioxide feed acting as catalyst poisons. To better understand this risk, United Technologies Aerospace System (UTAS) has teamed with MSFC to investigate the impact of various trace contaminants on the CRA catalyst performance at relative ISS cabin air concentrations and at about 200/400 times of ISS concentrations, representative of the potential concentrating effect of the CDRA molecular sieve. This paper summarizes our initial assessment results.

Nallette, Tim↗

NASA NTRS1992

Leaf gas exchange of Andropogon gerardii Vitman, Panicum virgatum L., and Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash in a tallgrass prairie

Net CO2 assimilation as a function of internal CO2 and stomatal conductance to water vapor were measured on blades of the C4 grasses Andropogon gerardii Vitman, Panicum virgatrum L., and Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash in northeast Kansas over two growing seasons to determine the comparative physiological responses of these dominant grasses of the tallgrass prairie to environmental variables. The response of dark respiration to temperature and of net assimilation to CO2 concentration and absorbed quantum flux differed little among species. A. gerardii had lower potential photosynthetic rates at internal CO2 concentrations below saturation than P. virgatum and S. nutans, but net assimilation under ambient conditions was similar in the three species. Net assimilation and both the initial slope of assimilation versus internal CO2 curves and the maximum potential assimilation rate decreased as leaf water potential declined in blades of A. gerardii and S. nutans. Changes in assimilation capacity were paralleled by changes in stomatal conductance that were similar in all three species. The strong correlations among processes regulating leaf CO2 assimilation and transpiration in A. gerardii, P. virgatum, and S. nutans suggest that the processes are tightly and similarly coupled in these grasses over a wide range of environmental conditions encountered in the tallgrass prairie.

Polley, H. W.↗

NASA NTRS1960

Early orbit determination scheme for the Juno space vehicle

The present status (1959-60) of the ABMA early orbit determination scheme for the Juno space vehicle is described. The design of the scheme was essentially influenced by three factors: its origin centered around postflight vehicle analysis, the flexibility required for accepting varied kinds of data, and the potential of highspeed computers concentrated in ABMA's Computation Laboratory. The scheme is outlined, the tracking stations participating are shortly described, and the physical layout and computational equipment are briefly mentioned. The evaluation techniques used for the various steps of the orbit determination are discussed in detail. Appendices describe briefly the principal coordinate systems used and characteristics of the digital computer programs.

Fletcher Kurtz↗

NASA NTRS1972

Advanced ETC/LSS computerized analytical models, CO2 concentration. Volume 1: Summary document

Computer simulations have been prepared for the concepts of C02 concentration which have the potential for maintaining a C02 partial pressure of 3.0 mmHg, or less, in a spacecraft environment. The simulations were performed using the G-189A Generalized Environmental Control computer program. In preparing the simulations, new subroutines to model the principal functional components for each concept were prepared and integrated into the existing program. Sample problems were run to demonstrate the methods of simulation and performance characteristics of the individual concepts. Comparison runs for each concept can be made for parametric values of cabin pressure, crew size, cabin air dry and wet bulb temperatures, and mission duration.

Taylor, B. N.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Baseline meteorological soundings for parametric environmental investigations at Kennedy Space Center and Vandenberg Air Force Base

Meteorological soundings representative of the atmospheric environment at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, are presented. Synthetic meteorological soundings at Kennedy Space Center, including fall, spring, and a sea breeze, and at Vandenberg Air Force Base (sea breeze with low and high level inversion and stationary upper level troughs) are shown. Soundings of frontal passages are listed. The Titan launch soundings at Kennedy Space Center present a wide range of meteorological conditions, both seasonal and time of day variations. The meteorological data input of altitude, wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and pressure may be used as meteorological inputs for the NASA/MSFC Multilayer Diffusion Model or other models to obtain quantitative estimates of effluent concentrations associated with the potential emission of major combustion products in the lower atmosphere to simulate actual launches of space vehicles. The Titan launch soundings are also of value in terms of rocket effluent measurements for analysis purposes.

Susko, M.↗