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NASA NTRS1984

The earth as a planet - Paradigms and paradoxes

The independent growth of the various branches of the earth sciences in the past two decades has led to a divergence of geophysical, geochemical, geological, and planetological models for the composition and evolution of a terrestrial planet. Evidence for differentiation and volcanism on small planets and a magma ocean on the moon contrasts with hypotheses for a mostly primitive, still undifferentiated, and homogeneous terrestrial mantle. In comparison with the moon, the earth has an extraordinarily thin crust. The geoid, which should reflect convection in the mantle, is apparently unrelated to the current distribution of continents and oceanic ridges. If the earth is deformable, the whole mantle should wander relative to the axis of rotation, but the implications of this are seldom discussed. The proposal of a mantle rich in olivine violates expectations based on evidence from extraterrestrial sources. These and other paradoxes force a reexamination of some long-held assumptions.

Anderson, D. L.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Classification of Circular Features on Venus

Among the unanswered questions concerning Venus are the age of its surface and the mechanisms of lithospheric heat transfer (conduction, plate recycling, and hot spot volcanism). If there is a large population of impact craters, then the surface is ancient and Venus is characterized by conduction like the Moon, and Mercury, rather than plate recycling and hot spot volcanism. Alternatively, if there is a large population of volcanic craters, then the surface is younger and other mechanisms of heat transfer likely dominate. Previous studies have emphasized various aspects of the observational, theoretical, experimental, and comparative planetological studies of cratering on Venus, and several have reached divergent opinions concerning the age of the Venus surface. A major source of uncertainty in previous studies is the possible inclusion of circular features of nonimpact (volcanic or tectonic) origin in the so called impact crater population. A classification scheme of circular features on Venus is developed in order to further distinguish their origin and distribution.

Stofan, E. R.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Questions about Mercury's role in comparative planetary geophysics

Problems which have arisen in formulating a mutually consistent picture of Mercury's evolution are outlined. It appears that one or more of the following widely adopted assumptions are wrong about Mercury: (1) its original composition at least approximately resulted from equilibrium condensation; (2) its magnetic field arises from a still-active dynamo; (3) its thermal evolution should have yielded early core formation followed by cooling and a global contraction approaching 20 km in the planet's radius; (4) Mercury's surface is basaltic and the intercrater plains are of volcanic origin. It is suggested that Mercury's role in comparative planetology be reevaluated in the context of an alternative timescale based on the possibility that Mercury was subjected to a continuing source of cratering projectiles over recent aeons, which have not impacted the other terrestrial planets. Although such vulcanoids have not yet been discovered, the evolution of Mercury's orbit due to secular perturbations could well have led to a prolonged period of sweeping out any intra-Mercurian planetesimals that were originally present. Mercury's surface could be younger than previously believed, which explains why Mercury's core is still molten.

Chapman, C. R.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Space science and exploration: A historical perspective

Major achievements in space sciences and exploration are briefly reviewed. Artificial satellites, space missions, planetology and space law are among the topics discussed.

Simpson, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Small linear wind tunnel saltation experiments: Some experiences

Since the wind tunnels proposed to be used for the Space Station Planetology Experiments are of a rather limited size, some experience and techniques used for saltation experiments in a small linear wind tunnel may be of interest. Three experiments will be presented. The first concerns a length effect of saltation mass flux in which the size of the wind tunnel exaggerates the physical process taking place. The second experiment concerns a nonoptical technique that does not interfere with flow and by which momentum flux to the floor may be measured. The technique may also be used to calculate saltation flux (using appropriate assumptions). The third experiment concerns the use of the momentum equation to estimate momentum fluxes by difference.

Gillette, D. A.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Rare and unique meteorites from Antarctica

The detection of Antarctic meteorites of Lunar and perhaps Martian origin, belongs to the most important discoveries in planetology during the last years. There is such a wealth of new information on differentiated and undifferentiated planetary bodies deduced from Antarctic meteorites that it is at present not possible to even qualitatively foresee the impact that these meteorites will have on the understanding of the formation and differentiation of large and small planets in the solar system. Martian meteorites, Lunar meteorites, meteorites from the parent body of basaltic achondrites, and chrondritic meteorites are discussed.

Palme, H.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Mossbauer spectroscopy of extraterrestrial materials

Mossbauer Spectroscopy (MS) has recently been added to the tools used by Dr. Richard Morris of the Experimental Planetology Branch of the Solar System Exploration Division at Johnson Space Flight Center in his research on synthetic and natural analogs of lunar and Martian soils. A least-squares fitting program for MS data written originally for an IBM 360 Mainframe computer was adapted for use on an IBM-PC microcomputer. The adapted program has been applied to the analysis of MS spectra obtained from several samples of Antarctic soil under investigation at JSC as analogs to soil of the Martian regolith. Preliminary conclusions have been drawn from the MS data about the composition of the Antarctic samples. Inferences from optical spectra obtained for these same samples have been compared with the MS results.

Agresti, D. G.↗

NASA NTRS1986

The joint NASA/Goddard-University of Maryland research program in charged particle and high energy photon detector technology

Progress made in the following areas is discussed: low energy ion and electron experiments; instrument design for current experiments; magnetospheric measurement of particles; ion measurement in the earth plasma sheet; abundance measurement; X-ray data acquisition; high energy physics; extragalactic astronomy; compact object astrophysics; planetology; and high energy photon detector technology.

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NASA NTRS1985

Microwave remote sensing from space

Spaceborne microwave remote sensors provide perspectives of the earth surface and atmosphere which are of unique value in scientific studies of geomorphology, oceanic waves and topography, atmospheric water vapor and temperatures, vegetation classification and stress, ice types and dynamics, and hydrological characteristics. Microwave radars and radiometers offer enhanced sensitivities to the geometrical characteristics of the earth's surface and its cover, to water in all its forms - soil and vegetation moisture, ice, wetlands, oceans, and atmospheric water vapor, and can provide high-resolution imagery of the earth's surface independent of cloud cover or sun angle. A brief review of the historical development and principles of active and passive microwave remote sensing is presented, with emphasis on the unique characteristics of the information obtainable in the microwave spectrum and the value of this information to global geoscientific studies. Various spaceborne microwave remote sensors are described, with applications to geology, planetology, oceanography, glaciology, land biology, meteorology, and hydrology. A discussion of future microwave remote sensor technological developments and challenges is presented, along with a summary of future missions being planned by several countries.

Carver, K. R.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Ices in planetary rings

Understanding the structure and behavior of Saturnian rings in terms of properties of ices is basic for evolutionary planetology. The available information indicates the presence of quite pure, probably amorphous water ice in the form of medium-grained frost in a fairy castle structure with a low thermal inertia. Tidal forces and interparticle collisions lead to continuous break-up and re-formation of loose aggregates of smaller particles. Micrometeoroid bombardment and proton irradiation are important for explaining the mechanical and optical properties of the surfaces of ring particles. The transfer of angular momentum and mass among the rings should homogenize the chemical and structural characteristics of the ring ices. Uranian rings may be made of carbon-covered methane ice particles.

Smoluchowski, R.↗

NASA NTRS1985

The need for a lunar base - Answering basic questions about planetary science

After assessing the state of current understanding of the planetological characteristics of the moon, attention is given to numerous questions that have arisen about the history of the moon and to prospective methods for their investigation through lunar exploration. One such exploratory mission will be that of the unmanned Lunar Geoscience Observer; the greatest prospects for important discoveries, however, are foreseen in manned lunar exploration. More sophisticated instruments and preliminary analyses are noted to be possible in manned exploration, although the possibility of contamination of samples is greater.

Taylor, G. J.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Clouds, aerosols, and photochemistry in the Jovian atmosphere

An assessment is made of the development status of concepts for cloud and aerosol compositions, vertical and horizontal distributions, and microphysical properties, in the Jovian upper troposphere and stratosphere. Attention is given to several key photochemical species' relationships to aerosol formation as well as their transport process implications, treating photochemistry in the context of comparative planetology and noting differences and similarities among the outer planet atmospheres; since this approach emphasizes observational data, a variegated assortment of ground-based and spacecraft observations is assembled. Current views on the tropospheric distribution of clouds are challenged, and a rationale is presented for alternative accounts.

West, R. A.↗

NASA NTRS1986

The ammonia-water phase diagram and its implications for icy satellites

A Holzapfel-type diamond anvil cell is used to determine the NH3 - H2O phase diagram in the region from 0 to 33 mole percent NH3, 240 to 370 K, and 0 to 5 GPa. The following phases were identified: liquid; water ices Ih, III, V, VI, VII, and VIII; ammonia monohydrate, NH3.H2O; and ammonia dihydrate NH3.2H2O. Ammonia dihydrate becomes prominent at moderate pressures (less than 1 GPa), with planetologically significant implications, including the possibility of layering in Titan's magma ocean.

Johnson, M. L.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Geomorphology from space: A global overview of regional landforms

This book, Geomorphology from Space: A Global Overview of Regional Landforms, was published by NASA STIF as a successor to the two earlier works on the same subject: Mission to Earth: LANDSAT views the Earth, and ERTS-1: A New Window on Our Planet. The purpose of the book is threefold: first, to serve as a stimulant in rekindling interest in descriptive geomorphology and landforms analysis at the regional scale; second, to introduce the community of geologists, geographers, and others who analyze the Earth's surficial forms to the practical value of space-acquired remotely sensed data in carrying out their research and applications; and third, to foster more scientific collaboration between geomorphologists who are studying the Earth's landforms and astrogeologists who analyze landforms on other planets and moons in the solar system, thereby strengthening the growing field of comparative planetology.

Short, Nicholas M.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Strategy for exploration of the outer planets: 1986-1996

Over the past decade COMPLEX has published three strategy reports which, taken together, encompass the entire planetary system and recommend a coherent program of planetary exploration. The highest priority for outer planet exploration during the next decade is intensive study of Saturn (the planet, satellites, rings, and magnetosphere) as a system. The Committee additionally recommends that NASA engage in the following supporting activities: increased support of laboratory and theoretical studies; pursuit of earth-based and earth-orbital observations; commitment to continued operation of productive spacecraft; implementation of the instrument development plan as appropriate for the outer solar system; studies of deep atmospheric probes; development of penetrators or other hard landers; development of radiation-hardened spacecraft; and development of low-thrust propulsion systems. Longer-term objectives include exploration and intensive study of: the Uranus and Neptune systems; planetology of the Galilean satellites and Titan; and the inner Jovian system.

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NASA NTRS1987

The ammonia-water phase diagram and its implications for icy satellites

Johnson, Mary L.↗

NASA NTRS1987

NASA's geodynamics program

The NASA geodynamics program covers dynamics of the core; dynamics and structure of the mantle; dynamics and structure of the lithosphere; evolution and composition of the Earth; and comparative planetology. Projects include crustal dynamics/Earth observations; gravity field modelling; and magnetic field studies. Planned space flights include global gravity and magnetic field mapping; magnetic field secular changes; gravity gradiometer mission; LAGEOS-2; and Earth Observing System.

Mcadoo, D. C.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Planetary Geology: Goals, Future Directions, and Recommendations

Planetary exploration has provided a torrent of discoveries and a recognition that planets are not inert objects. This expanded view has led to the notion of comparative planetology, in which the differences and similarities among planetary objects are assessed. Solar system exploration is undergoing a change from an era of reconnaissance to one of intensive exploration and focused study. Analyses of planetary surfaces are playing a key role in this transition, especially as attention is focused on such exploration goals as returned samples from Mars. To assess how the science of planetary geology can best contribute to the goals of solar system exploration, a workshop was held at Arizona State University in January 1987. The participants discussed previous accomplishments of the planetary geology program, assessed the current studies in planetary geology, and considered the requirements to meet near-term and long-term exploration goals.

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