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NASA NTRS1992

Resource availability at Taurus-Littrow

Early lunar technologies will probably use a common lunar material as ore. They will be robust to minor fluctuations in feedstock composition and will not require appreciable feedstock beneficiation such as rock grinding or mineral concentration. Technologies using unprocessed soil and indifferent to its composition will have the advantage. Nevertheless, the size and grade of the ore body must be confirmed for even the most indiscriminate process. Simple uses such as heaping unprocessed lunar soil for thermal insulation or radiation shielding onto a habitat require that we know the depth of the regolith, the size distributions of its soils, the locations of large boulders, and the ease of excavation. Costs of detailed site surveys trade against restrictions on site selection and conservative engineering design to accommodate unknown conditions of a poorly explored site. Given the above considerations, we consider briefly some abundant lunar materials, their proposed uses, and technologies for their preparation, with particular attention to the Taurus-Littrow site.

Haskin, Larry A.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Production of Ultrafine, High-purity Ceramic Powders Using the US Bureau of Mines Developed Turbomill

Turbomilling, an innovative grinding technology developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the early 1960's for delaminating filler-grade kaolinitic clays, has been expanded into the areas of particle size reduction, material mixing, and process reaction kinetics. The turbomill, originally called an attrition grinder, has been used for particle size reduction of many minerals, including natural and synthetic mica, pyrophyllite, talc, and marble. In recent years, an all-polymer version of the turbomill has been used to produce ultrafine, high-purity, advanced ceramic powders such as SiC, Si3N4, TiB2, and ZrO2. In addition to particle size reduction, the turbomill has been used to produce intimate mixtures of high surface area powders and whiskers. Raw materials, TiN, AlN, and Al2O3, used to produce a titanium nitride/aluminum oxynitride (TiN/AlON) composite, were mixed in the turbomill, resulting in strength increases over samples prepared by dry ball milling. Using the turbomill as a leach vessel, it was found that 90.4 pct of the copper was extracted from the chalcopyrite during a 4-hour leach test in ferric sulfate versus conventional processing which involves either roasting of the ore for Cu recovery or leaching of the ore for several days.

Hoyer, Jesse L.↗

NASA NTRS1997

In Situ identification of mineral resources with an X-ray-optical "Hand-Lens" instrument

Marshall, J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

In Situ Identification of Mineral Resources with an X-Ray-Optical "Hands-Lens" Instrument

The recognition of material resources on a planetary surface requires exploration strategies not dissimilar to those employed by early field geologists who searched for ore deposits primarily from surface clues. In order to determine the location of mineral ores or other materials, it will be necessary to characterize host terranes at regional or subregional scales. This requires geographically broad surveys in which statistically significant numbers of samples are rapidly scanned from a roving platform. To enable broad-scale, yet power-conservative planetary-surface exploration, we are developing an instrument that combines x-ray diffractometry (XRD), x-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), and optical capabilities; the instrument can be deployed at the end of a rover's robotic arm, without the need for sample capture or preparation. The instrument provides XRD data for identification of mineral species and lithological types; diffractometry of minerals is conducted by ascertaining the characteristic lattice parameters or "d-spacings" of mineral compounds. D-spacings of 1.4 to 25 angstroms can be determined to include the large molecular structures of hydrated minerals such as clays. The XRF data will identify elements ranging from carbon (Atomic Number = 6) to elements as heavy as barium (Atomic Number = 56). While a sample is being x-rayed, the instrument simultaneously acquires an optical image of the sample surface at magnifications from lx to at least 50x (200x being feasible, depending on the sample surface). We believe that imaging the sample is extremely important as corroborative sample-identification data (the need for this capability having been illustrated by the experience of the Pathfinder rover). Very few geologists would rely on instrument data for sample identification without having seen the sample. Visual inspection provides critical recognition data such as texture, crystallinity, granularity, porosity, vesicularity, color, lustre, opacity, and so forth. These data can immediately distinguish sedimentary from igneous rocks, for example, and can thus eliminate geochemical or mineral ambiguities arising, say between arkose and granite. It would be important to know if the clay being analyzed was part of a uniform varve deposit laid down in a quiescent lake, or the matrix of a megabreccia diamictite deposited as a catastrophic impact ejecta blanket. The unique design of the instrument, which combines Debye-Scherrer geometry with elements of standard goniometry, negates the need for sample preparation of any kind, and thus negates the need for power-hungry and mechanically-complex sampling systems that would have to chip, crush, sieve, and mount the sample for x-ray analysis. Instead, the instrument is simply rested on the sample surface of interest (like a hand lens); the device can interrogate rough rock surfaces, coarse granular material, or fine rock flour. A breadboard version of the instrument has been deployed from the robotic arm of the Marsokhod rover in field trials at NASA Ames, where large vesicular boulders were x-rayed to demonstrate the functionality of the instrument design, and the ability of such a device to comply with constraints imposed by a roving platform. Currently under development is a flight prototype concept of this instrument that will weigh 0.3 kg, using about 4500 J of energy per sample analysis. It requires about 5 min. for XRD analysis, and about 30 min. for XRF interrogation. Its small mass and rugged design make it ideal for deployment on small rovers of the type currently envisaged for the exploration of Mars (e.g., Sojourner-scale platforms). The design utilizes a monolithic P-N junction photodiode pixel array for XRD, a Si PIN photodiode/avalanche photodiode system for XRF, and an endoscopic imaging camera system unobtrusively embedded between the detectors and the x-ray source (the endoscope with its board-mounted camera can be adapted for IR light in addition to visible wavelenths. A rugged, miniature (7 cu cm) x-ray source for the instrument has already been breadboarded.

Marshall, J.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Mineral Mapping with Imaging Spectroscopy: The Ray Mine, AZ

Mineral maps generated for the Ray Mine, Arizona were analyzed to determine if imaging spectroscopy can provide accurate information for environmental management of active and abandoned mine regions. The Ray Mine, owned by the ASARCO Corporation, covers an area of 5700 acres and is situated in Pinal County, Arizona about 70 miles north of Tucson near Hayden, Arizona. This open-pit mine has been a major source of copper since 1911, producing an estimated 4.5 million tons of copper since its inception. Until 1955 mining was accomplished by underground block caving and shrinkage stope methods. (excavation by working in stepped series usually employed in a vertical or steeply inclined orebody) In 1955, the mine was completely converted to open pit method mining with the bulk of the production from sulfide ore using recovery by concentrating and smelting. Beginning in 1969 a significant production contribution has been from the leaching and solvent extraction-electrowinnowing method of silicate and oxide ores. Published reserves in the deposit as of 1992 are 1.1 billion tons at 0.6 percent copper. The Environmental Protection Agency, in conjunction with ASARCO, and NASA/JPL obtained AVIRIS data over the mine in 1997 as part of the EPA Advanced Measurement Initiative (AMI) (Tom Mace, Principal Investigator). This AVIRIS data set is being used to compare and contrast the accuracy and environmental monitoring capabilities of remote sensing technologies: visible-near-IR imaging spectroscopy, multispectral visible and, near-IR sensors, thermal instruments, and radar platforms. The goal of this effort is to determine if these various technologies provide useful information for envirorunental management of active and abandoned mine sites in the arid western United States. This paper focuses on the analysis of AVIRIS data for assessing the impact of the Ray Mine on Mineral Creek. Mineral Creek flows to the Gila River. This paper discusses our preliminary AVIRIS mineral mapping and environmental findings.

Clark, Roger N.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Manganese, Metallogenium, and Martian Microfossils

Manganese could easily be considered an abundant element in the Martian regolith, assuming that the composition of martian meteorites reflects the composition of the planet. Mineralogical analyses of 5 SNC meteorites have revealed an average manganese oxide concentration of 0.48%, relative to the 0.1% concentration of manganese found in the Earth's crust. On the Earth, the accumulation of manganese oxides in oceans, soils, rocks, sedimentary ores, fresh water systems, and hydrothermal vents can be largely attributed to microbial activity. Manganese is also a required trace nutrient for most life forms and participates in many critical enzymatic reactions such as photosynthesis. The wide-spread process of bacterial manganese cycling on Earth suggests that manganese is an important element to both geology and biology. Furthermore, there is evidence that bacteria can be fossilized within manganese ores, implying that manganese beds may be good repositories for preserved biomarkers. A particular genus of bacteria, known historically as Metallogenium, can form star-shaped manganese oxide minerals (called metallogenium) through the action of manganese oxide precipitation along its surface. Fossilized structures that resemble metallogenium have been found in Precambrian sedimentary formations and in Cretaceous-Paleogene cherts. The Cretaceous-Paleogene formations are highly enriched in manganese and have concentrations of trace elements (Fe, Zn, Cu, and Co) similar to modern-day manganese oxide deposits in marine environments. The appearance of metallogenium-like fossils associated with manganese deposits suggests that bacteria may be preserved within the minerals that they form. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Stein, L. Y.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Microbial Remains in Middle Proterozoic Rocks of Northern Australia

Investigation of the samples of the McArthur River complex ore deposit, one of the most zinc-lead m i n d provinces in the world, brings us to conclusion about the possibility of the biogenic origin of sulfides in McArthur River ore deposit and to make suppositions about the formation of the studied rocks in the photic zone of sea.

Astafieva, Marina↗

NASA NTRS2014

Quaoar: New, Longitudinaly Resolved, Spectroscopic Characterization of Its Surface

(50000) Quaoar, one of the largest Trans-neptunian objects, is comparable in size to Pluto's moon Charon. However, while Charon's surface is rich almost exclusively in H2O ice, Quaoar's surface characterized by ices of CH4, N2, as well as C2H6, a product of irradiation of CH4 (Dalle Ore et al. 2009). Because of its distance from the Sun, Quaoar is expected to have preserved, to a degree, its original composition, however, its relatively small size did not make it a prime candidate for presence of volatile ices in the study by Schaller and Brown (2007). Furthermore, based on the Brown et al. (2011) study (Brown, Schaller, & Fraser, 2011. A Hypothesis for the Color Diversity of the Kuiper Belt. ApJL, 739, L60) its red coloration points to CH3OH as the ice which, when irradiated, might have produced the red material. We present new visible to near-infrared (0.3-2.48 micrometers) spectro-photometric data obtained with the XSHOOTER (Vernet et al. 2011, A&A, 536A, 105 ) instrument at the VLT-ESO facility at four different longitudes on the surface of Quaoar. The data are complemented by previously published photometric observations obtained in the near-infrared (3.6, 4.5 micrometers) with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which provide an extra set of constraints in the model calculation process in spite of the different observing times that preclude establishing the spatial consistency between the two sets. For each of the four spectra we perform spectral modeling of the entire wavelength range -from 0.3 to 4.5 micrometers- by means of a code based on the Shkuratov radiative transfer formulation of the slab model. We obtain spatially resolved compositional information for the surface of Quaoar supporting the presence of CH4 and C2H6, as previously reported, along with evidence for N2 and NH3OH. The albedo at the two Spitzer bands indicates the likely presence of CO and CO2. CH3OH, predicted on the basis of Quaoar's coloration (Brown et al. 2011), is not found at any of the four longitudes, implying that the presence of this ice is a sufficient, but not necessary condition for reddening of TNO surfaces. Other ices, in particular CH4 (Brunetto et al. 2006), have been shown to be plausible precursors for reddening of TNO surfaces.

Ices↗

NASA NTRS2019

Prebiotic Chemistry of Pluto

We present the case for the presence of complex organic molecules, such as amino acids and nucleobases, formed by abiotic processes on the surface and in near-subsurface regions of Pluto. Pluto's surface is tinted with a range of non-ice substances with colors ranging from light yellow to red to dark brown; the colors match those of laboratory organic residues called tholins. Tholins are broadly characterized as complex, macromolecular organic solids consisting of a network of aromatic structures connected by aliphatic bridging units (e.g., Imanaka et al.,2004; Materese et al.,2014, 2015). The synthesis of tholins in planetary atmospheres and in surface ices has been explored in numerous laboratory experiments, and both gas- and solid-phase varieties are found on Pluto. A third variety of tholins, exposed at a site of tectonic surface fracturing called Virgil Fossae, appears to have come from a reservoir in the subsurface. Eruptions of tholin-laden liquid H2O from a subsurface aqueous repository appear to have covered portions of Virgil Fossae and its surroundings with a uniquely colored deposit (D.P. Cruikshank, personal communication) that is geographically correlated with an exposure of H2O ice that includes spectroscopically detected NH3 (C.M. Dalle Ore, personal communication). The subsurface organic material could have been derived from presolar or solar nebula processes, or might have formed in situ. Photolysis and radiolysis of a mixture of ices relevant to Pluto's surface composition (N2, CH4, CO) have produced strongly colored, complex organics with a significant aromatic content having a high degree of nitrogen substitution similar to the aromatic heterocycles pyrimidine and purine (Materese et al.,2014, 2015; Cruikshank et al.,2016). Experiments with pyrimidines and purines frozen in H2O-NH3 ice resulted in the formation of numerous nucleobases, including the biologically relevant guanine, cytosine, adenine, uracil, and thymine (Materese et al.,2017). The red material associated with the H2O ice may contain nucleobases resulting from energetic processing on Pluto's surface or in the interior. Some other Kuiper Belt objects also exhibit red colors similar to those found on Pluto and may therefore carry similar inventories of complex organic materials. The widespread and ubiquitous nature of similarly complex organic materials observed in a variety of astronomical settings drives the need for additional laboratory and modeling efforts to explain the origin and evolution of organic molecules. Pluto observations reveal complex organics on a small body that remains close to its place of origin in the outermost regions of the Solar System.

Cruikshank, D. P.↗

NASA NTRS2021

Dione’s Wispy Terrain: A Cryovolcanic Story?

We examine the H2O ice phase on the surface of Dione, one of Saturn's icy satellites, to investigate whether it might harbor cryovolcanic activity induced by a subcrustal body of water. Several studies have searched for such a signature, as summarized in Buratti et al.; however, none has yet produced sufficient evidence to dissipate doubts. In the radiation environment characteristic of Saturn's icy moons, the presence of crystalline H2O ice has been used as a marker of a high-temperature region. Because ion bombardment will, over time, drive crystalline ice toward an increasingly amorphous state, the current phase of the H2O ice can be used to gauge the temporal temperature evolution of the surface. We adopt a technique described by Dalle Ore et al. to map the fraction of amorphous to crystalline H2O ice on Dione's surface, observed by the Cassini Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, and provide an ice exposure age. We focus on a region observed at high spatial resolution and centered on one of the faults of the Wispy Terrain, which is measured to be fully crystalline. By assuming an amorphous to crystalline ice fraction of 5% (i.e., 95% crystallinity), significantly higher than the actual measurement, we obtain an upper limit for the age of the fault of 152 Ma. This implies that the studied fault has been active in the last ~100 Ma, supporting the hypothesis that Dione might still be active or was active a very short time ago, and similarly to Enceladus, might still be harboring a body of liquid water under its crust.

Saturnian satellites↗

NASA NTRS1967

Neutron activation analysis traces copper artifacts to geographical point of origin

Impurities remaining in the metallic copper are identified and quantified by spectrographic and neutron activation analysis. Determination of the type of ore used for the copper artifact places the geographic point of origin of the artifact.

Conway, M.↗

NASA NTRS1968

Predicted vibration responses of Apollo structure and effects of pressure correlation lengths on response

Progressive wove and reverberant acoustic fields ore often used in the laboratory for qualification testing of aerospace structures that are subjected to unsteady aerodynamic environments which occur during flight through the atmosphere. Acoustic simulation of these in-flight environments i s achieved i f the structural vibration response to acoustic excitation is equivalent, over the frequency range of interest, to the response caused by aerodynamic turbulence. To determine the degree of response simulation that could be expected for such qualification testing of the Apollo Spacecraft, responses of a segment of the Apollo structure were estimated theoretically for both acoustic and flight environments. The vibration analysis presented in this report was performed for the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adaptor; and the three environments treated are turbulence at Mach 1 and Mach 2, a reverberant acoustic field, and a modified acoustic progressive wave field. The progressive wave field is assumed to be generated within a specially designed shroud of sixteen axially oriented ducts which is constructed around and contoured to the external skin of the vehicle. Each duct is open on the side adjacent to the skin and is driven acoustically at one end by an independent noise source, thus allowing for different pressure correlation patterns around the circumference of the vehicle. The purpose of the analysis was to determine the effects of surface pressure correlation lengths on the response characteristics of representative Apollo structure, and to select on this basis, the optimum acoustic environment for structural vibration qualification tests of the Apollo in the Spacecraft Acoustic Laboratory at MSC. The method of analysis employed consists of determining, independently, the space average, mean-square acceleration spectral density for each of the significant modes of vibration of an equivalent cylindrical shell, and then expressing the total structural response as a linear summation of these modal responses. Approximately 570 classical modes of a pinned-end cylinder were used in order to find the spectral response characteristics of the structure throughout the frequency range of 10 - 1,000 Hz. The effective forcing functions or joint acceptances of the various modes of vibration were computed and are presented graphically for each of the pressure excitation environments. A brief development of the response equations used is presented in the report. Space average acceleration response spectra were computed for twelve different cases including aerodynamic turbulence at Mach 1 and Mach 2, reverberant acoustic field, five duct correlation patterns, two cases of an axially damped progressive wave field, and two cases in which the structural damping constant was varied from the expected value. The response spectra were computed and plotted by a high speed digital computer far a flat excitation pressure spectrum; and the response spectra were numerically integrated to give one-third octave bond average responses. A complete set of digital computer programs has been developed for both flat plate and cylindrical shell structures for the above environments, and each requires run times of three minutes or less. Thus, the work presented herein, along with the results, constitutes a practical advancement to the existing state-of-the-art of vibration prediction.

R W White↗

NASA NTRS1970

Swept-frequency UHF radiometer for deep probes of earth - A concept

Radiometer, developed for use on moon or planets, could be used to - determine layering and structure as deep as 100 feet below earth surface, determine physical properties of subsurface by variation of dielectric constants, identify types of materials including ore bodies and oil, and locate subsurface deposits of moisture.

Koppl, W.↗

NASA NTRS1970

Experimental applications of multispectral data to natural resource inventory and survey

The feasibility of using multispectral, color, color infrared, thermal infrared imagery and related ground data to recognize, identify, determine and monitor the status of mineral ore and metals stockpiles is studied. An attempt was made to identify valid, unique spectral signatures of such materials for possible use under a wide variety of environmental circumstances. Research emphasis was upon the analysis of the multiband imagery from the various film-filter combinations, using density analysis techniques.

Mallon, H. J.↗

NASA NTRS1970

Evaluation of Color and Color Infrared Photography from the Goldfield Mining District, Esmerelda and Nye Countries, Nevada

The determination of geological features characteristic of the Goldfield epithermal ore deposits is considered and which of them can be identified from color and color infrared aerial photography. The Goldfield mining district in the western part of the Basin and Range Province is the area of study, located in desert terrain of relatively low relief.

Ashley, R. P.↗

NASA NTRS1973

ERTS-A data as a teaching and research tool in the Department of Geology

The author has identified the following significant results. ERTS-1 prints have been used extensively in a geology of Alaska class to give a basic framework of the geology of the state. In addition, they have been intermittantly used in such diverse classes as: (1) Economic Geology (e.g. the Sn-bearing granites of the Seward Peninsula are particularly noticeable due to their wide contact metamorphic aureoles.) (2) A canned geology of Alaska lecture which has been given to two different introductory geology courses. (3) Structural Geology (e.g. the Fairweather and Denali faults are striking obvious). It was found most convenient for larger classes to prepare 35mm slides of the ERTS-1 prints that are used in conjunction with slides of the topographic and geologic maps at about the same scale. Thus the emphasis has been in integration of the ERTS-1 material into existing courses. As such, the ERTS-1 data has provided a unique and striking viewpoint that never fails to initiate favorable comment. In addition, prints have been examined by numerous researchers to develop a regional, integrated overview of such varied topics as regional geology to a background for local geologic mapping to studies of ore deposits and to the definition of a formation to be studied in detail at its type locality.

Grybeck, D.↗

NASA NTRS1973

Identification and interpretation of tectonic features from ERTS-1 imagery

The author has identified the following significant results. The spatial relation of mercury deposits and faults in California coast ranges suggests regional structural control whereby the transverse faults and associated zones of weakness provided easy conduits for the ascent of hydrothermal solutions and emplacement of mercury ore. If proved valid, this relation identifies transverse fault zones as favorable structural guides for mercury exploration.

Abdel-Gawad, M.↗

NASA NTRS1973

Iron-absorption band analysis for the discrimination of iron-rich zones

The author has identified the following significant results. Lineament analysis of the area was initiated on individual images and then expanded areally by the use of mosaics at the 1:1,000,000 scale. Principal trends are NE, NW, NNE-NNW, and ENE. Several previously unrecognized lineaments are mapped which may be the surface manifestations of major fault or fracture zones. Three lineaments are especially noteworthy. Two of these, the Walker Lane and the Midas Trench lineament system, transect the prediominantly NNE-NNW trending mountain ranges for more than 500 km. A third major lineament, formed by the alinement of several topographic escarpments 10-20 km long, is orthogonal to the Midas Trench lineament. This lineament is marked by a distinct positive magnetic anomaly for approximately 200 km. Further visual analysis of ERTS-1 images has resulted in the delineation of 50 circular or elliptical features which are presumed to be volcanic or intrusive centers. A comparison with the 78 Tertiary volcanic centers mapped in the study area in 1970 indicates some good agreement between the proposed and known volcanic centers. The coincidence of some major lineaments and productive ore bodies implies a genetic relationship.

Rowan, L. C.↗