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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 91 records · Page 5
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Current-Voltage Analysis Tool for Solar Fuel Production (CATS) v0.1

The program is expected to be a useful tool during operation of a range of solar-driven electrochemical devices, such as PV-electrolyzers and photoelectrochemical (PEC) devices. It makes use of current-voltage data collected during operation, operation parameters that are easily accessible for many devices of interest. The program captures the time-dependence of loss mechanisms at play during PEC device operation and opens the door for real-time optimizations of operational parameters like the feed humidity to minimize performance losses. Currently, the program is useful for applications where the current-voltage polarization response of the photoabsorber and electrolyzer are pre-recorded, and changes over time can be estimated based on the pre-recorded current-voltage scans. More complicated scenarios that involve permanent degradation of the PV component or complex calculations of the electrolyzer current-voltage characteristics may be included in future versions of this software. Aside from the possibility of deconvoluting loss mechanisms, this software can also reveal possible performance benefits by convective PV cooling when the photoabsorber is integrated into the electrolysis cell. The latter can highlight why certain device architectures may be beneficial over others. No similar technologies are known to the developer.

Kistler, Tobias↗
DOE OSTI2022

Data for Bioprocessing, Recovery, and Mass Balance of Vegetative Lipids from Metabolically Engineered ‘Oilcane’ Demonstrates Its Potential as an Alternative Feedstock for Drop-In Fuel Production

Plant oils are increasingly in demand as renewable feedstocks for biodiesel and biochemicals. Currently, oilseeds are the primary source of plant oils. Although the vegetative tissues of plants express lipid metabolism pathways, they do not hyper-accumulate lipids. Elevated synthesis, storage, and accumulation of lipids in vegetative tissues have been achieved by metabolic engineering of sugarcane to produce “oilcane.” This study evaluates the potential of oilcane as a renewable feedstock for the co-production of lipids and fermentable sugars. Oilcane was grown under favorable climatic and field conditions in Florida (FLOC) as well as during an abbreviated growing season, outside its typical growing region, in Illinois (ILOC). The potential lipid yield of 0.35 tons/ha was projected from the hyperaccumulation of fatty acids in the stored vegetative biomass of FLOC, which is approaching the lipid yield of soybean (0.44 tons/ha). Processing of the vegetative tissues of oilcane recovered 0.20 tons/ha, which represents the recovery of 55% of the total lipids from FLOC. Chemical-free hydrothermal bioprocessing of ILOC and FLOC bagasse and leaves at 180 °C for 10 min prevented the degeneration of in situ plant lipids. This allowed the recovery of lipids at the end of the bioprocess with a major fraction of lipids remaining in the biomass residues after pretreatment and saccharification. Improvements through refined biomass processing, crop management, and metabolic engineering are expected to boost lipid yields and make oilcane a prime feedstock for the production of biodiesel.

Conversion↗
DOE OSTI2020

Catalysts and process for liquid hydrocarbon fuel production

The present invention provides a novel process and system in which a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen synthesis gas, or syngas, is converted into hydrocarbon mixtures composed of high quality gasoline components, aromatic compounds, and lower molecular weight gaseous olefins in one reactor or step. The invention utilizes a novel molybdenum-zeolite catalyst in high pressure hydrogen for conversion, as well as a novel rhenium-zeolite catalyst in place of the molybdenum-zeolite catalyst, and provides for use of the novel catalysts in the process and system of the invention.

White, Mark G.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Catalysts and process for liquid hydrocarbon fuel production

The present invention provides a novel process and system in which a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen synthesis gas, or syngas, is converted into hydrocarbon mixtures composed of high quality gasoline components, aromatic compounds, and lower molecular weight gaseous olefins in one reactor or step. The invention utilizes a novel molybdenum-zeolite catalyst in high pressure hydrogen for conversion, as well as a novel rhenium-zeolite catalyst in place of the molybdenum-zeolite catalyst, and provides for use of the novel catalysts in the process and system of the invention.

White, Mark G.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Impact of storage and blending of algae and forest product residue on fuel blendstock production

Seasonal impacts on the production of algae biomass require blending with other feedstocks such as wood to maintain consistent annual conversion capacity. Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has developed a long-term storage strategy for algae biomass using ensiling, or anaerobic wet storage, that was tested for blends of algae and wood to stabilize the feedstock supply for processing to fuels. Additionally, blending biomass (algae and wood) leverages existing biomass storage approaches commonly used by the feed and forage industry. Earlier research also has demonstrated positive results that indicate ensiling is more effective and economical in normalizing biomass feedstock supply prior to conversions such as HTL (hydrothermal liquefaction) than preserving biomass by drying. By assessing impacts beginning with upstream logistic operations and proceeding through each conversion step, this work focuses on conversion of ensiled and blended biomass to fungible liquid transportation fuel blendstocks. This is accomplished by conversion of the blended biomass (62% Chlorella sp. blended with 38% loblolly pine forest product residues [FPR]) to bio-crude through HTL and subsequent upgrading through HT (hydrotreating) with a commercial refinery catalyst analogous to a refinery process to produce hydrocarbon fuel. In this work, results indicate that carbon retention and quality are preserved in both the bio-crude and upgraded fuel from the ensiled blend, indicating the potential of this approach for managing seasonal variations in algae biomass productivity.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Production and Fuel properties of Iso-Olefins with Controlled Molecular Structure and Obtained from Butene Oligomerization

The ability to control the molecular structure (e.g., degree of branching) of iso-olefins produced from oligomerizing light olefins is a valuable tool for tuning the final compositions of hydrocarbon fuels and targeting specific fuel properties. In this study, we demonstrated that the degree of branching of iso-olefins obtained from butene(s) oligomerization can be controlled by tuning process conditions (i.e., temperature, weight hourly space velocity [WHSV], and nature of butene feedstock) and by choosing the proper catalyst (i.e., Amberlyst-36 vs. Y/ZSM-22). In this study, we produced three types of iso-olefin mixtures: 1) a methyl-heptenes rich (74 wt.%) mixture, 2) dimethyl-hexenes rich (80–96 wt.%) mixtures, and 3) highly branched (i.e., more than three methyl substitutions) iso-olefins rich (>50 wt.%) mixtures. While dimethyl-hexenes are preferentially formed at lower temperatures (60–100°C) and WHSV (i.e., 2 hr-1), methyl-heptenes are favorably produced at higher temperatures (>100°C) and WHSVs (i.e., 7 hr-1) over Amberlyst-36. The use of either 1-butene or 2-butene as feedstock resulted in liquid products with similar branching because facile intramolecular isomerization occurs prior to oligomerization. However, the use of isobutylene feedstock forms a significantly more branched olefin product. The formation of highly branched iso-olefins also is favored at higher temperature (140°C) over Amberlyst-36. Using Y/ZSM-22 instead of Amberlyst-36 allowed preferential formation of less-branched methyl-heptenes. For each type of iso-olefins mixture, we determined fuel properties including research octane number (RON), motor octane number (MON), and octane sensitivity (S), which is the difference between RON and MON. We found that not only RON and MON but also S values increased with the degree of branching of these complex mixtures of iso-olefins. The highest RON of 99.7 and S value of 9.3 were obtained for a mixture of highly branched iso-olefins.

Dagle, Vanessa↗
DOE OSTI2026

Co-Location of Cellulosic Bioethanol and Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ) Production Facilities for Targeted Scale-Up of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Production

Achieving aerospace industry net-zero emissions by 2050 requires rapid scaling of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) production. Leveraging existing infrastructure, proven technologies like Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ), and low carbon intensity (CI) feedstocks (e.g., switchgrass and miscanthus) can support this transition and help achieve near-term emissions reduction targets. This study evaluates the implications of lignocellulosic ethanol biorefinery siting and integration with petroleum refineries to produce SAF across 1000 sites randomly sampled from areas suitable for perennial grasses in the U.S. rainfed region. To better understand the logistics of material transport and handoffs, we integrated models of biomass harvest, transport, ethanol, and ATJ production in a stochastic framework based on Monte Carlo simulations to characterize SAF minimum selling price (MSP) and carbon intensity (CI), considering site-specific parameters (e.g., feedstock production, transportation, taxes, incentives). The results indicate trade-offs between MSP and CI across locations, with median MSP ranging from 7.9 to 12.8 USD·gal −1 and CI from −9.7 to 39.4 gCO 2 e·MJ −1 . Despite high estimated decarbonization costs (580 USD·tonCO 2 e −1 ), our results indicate that site-specific deployment of ATJ with low-CI feedstocks can improve sustainability outcomes. The framework provides a systematic approach to assess cost and sustainability trade-offs across locations, considering the end-to-end supply chain and supporting an informed investment in SAF production.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Application of Advanced Materials Processing to Enable Direct Production of Fast Reactor Fuel Alloys

Argonne National Laboratory (the Contractor), located in Lemont, IL, and Oklo, Inc. (the Participant), headquartered in Sunnyvale, CA, entered into a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) to integrate advanced electrorefining co-deposition and molten-salt monitoring technologies to produce a uranium-transuranic (U/TRU) alloy within a controlled composition range that can be used as fast reactor fuel for Oklo, Inc.’s advanced reactor technology. Argonne performed the integration of electrorefining and process monitoring technologies, determined operating parameters for producing U/TRU alloys, and developed optimized design and operating parameters for co-deposition of U/TRU alloys. Oklo, Inc. worked with Argonne and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to provide the necessary process documentation to begin implementing pyroprocessing technology in the fast reactor fuel production process. Outcomes of this project included a pilot-scale co-deposition cathode design and technical basis for the operation of the co-deposition electrorefiner to produce U/TRU alloys with controlled composition.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Modeling of the Synfuel Production Process: Process models of Fischer-Tropsch production with electricity and hydrogen provided by various scales of nuclear plants

Synthetic fuels (synfuels), also known as electro-fuels (E-fuels), are hydrocarbon fuels produced from waste CO2 streams and water electrolysis, with electricity as the primary source of energy. To achieve substantial reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, electricity sources must release zero carbon or near-zero carbon, as is the case with solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear power. Nuclear power is one of the largest and steadiest domestic sources of clean energy in the United States. Moreover, nuclear power has the potential to produce hydrogen economically for less than $2/kg, reaching the DOE near-term target price. Thus, using nuclear power to produce synfuels has the unique potential to significantly reduce the GHG emissions of hydrocarbon fuels production and end-use applications. Fisher-Tropsch or FT fuel (a mixture of naphtha, jet fuel, and diesel) is of great interest because it is a drop-in fuel that can be blended with conventional petroleum counterparts and is compatible with existing infrastructure. By using the ASPEN Plus model, this report develops FT fuel production models on three scales, corresponding to nuclear plants with capacities of 1000 MWe, 437 Mwe, and 100 MWe, respectively. The FT model case with energy from a 437-MWe nuclear plant is used as a baseline case. This report summarizes the baseline ASPEN Plus model results with a detailed mass and energy analysis. Our modeled facility produces 507 MT/day (185,000 gal/day) of FT fuel by converting 255 MT/day of hydrogen and 1,580 MT/day of CO2. The FT fuel production energy efficiency from hydrogen and electricity energy inputs is 70% (lowerheating-value or LHV-based). Including the high-temperature electrolyzer in the system boundary, the FT fuel production LHV efficiency from electricity and thermal energy inputs is 51%, considering 39.8 kWh/kg of electricity and 6.86 kWh/kg of thermal energy use from a nuclear plant for hydrogen production. The FT production efficiency can potentially be increased by further integrating the heat exchange between nuclear plant and FT process, and this study is underway. The carbon conversion ratio in the baseline case is 99%, with process CO2 capture and recirculation and oxy-combustion using the oxygen by-product from water electrolysis. The hydrogen consumption is 1.38 kg/gal-FT fuel and the CO2 consumption is 8.56 kg/gal-FT fuel in the baseline case. With different FT production scales determined by the nuclear plant capacity, the FT model was scaled using the same operating parameters, which led to the same conversion efficiency regardless of scale. However, the different FT plant scales will impact the economics of FT fuel production; this impact will be examined in the next phase of this study.

Zang, Guiyan↗
DOE OSTI2025

Technology Case Study: Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Analysis for Microalgae Conversion Pathways to Fuels and Products

This technology case study report details the cost and sustainability prospects for an emerging feedstock - microalgae - converted to fuels and products via a fractionation and upgrading approach termed combined algae processing (CAP). Detailed techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) are conducted for the conversion of farmed algae biomass, with two primary scenarios considering the conversion of either high-compositional-quality biomass enriched in lipids (high-lipid [HL]) or lower-quality biomass enriched in protein (high-protein [HP]). Each scenario employs a different biorefinery configuration tailored towards extracting the maximum value from the given biomass composition. The HL scenario produces fuels and non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) as the primary products, while the HP scenario products fuels and a residual solid coproduct which can be used as a co-feed for producing thermoplastics. The results for the HL scenario were particularly promising, with a minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of $\$$3.68 per gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) and fuel GHG emissions translating to 54%-76% reduction compared to petroleum fuels depending on the coproduct handling method used. In contrast, the HP scenario faced more challenges in producing biofuels economically, projecting an MFSP of $\$$7.92/GGE despite significant revenues from the residual algae solids. LCA results for the HP case reflected a 24% reduction potential in biorefinery-level GHG emissions. However, these GHG reductions were primarily associated with the thermoplastic coproduct, which accounted for 93% of all biorefinery outputs by mass. Using a process-level allocation method, carbon intensity results were less promising, indicating a net increase in fuel GHG emissions versus petroleum fuels and highlighting the reliance of this scenario on the thermoplastic coproduct.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2024

A chemical kinetic analysis of knock propensity of methanol-to-gasoline fuel

Production of low carbon gasoline-like fuels such as methanol-to-gasoline (MTG) is a promising approach to achieve rapid greenhouse gas emission reduction of the transportation sector. Despite the fact that gasoline that meets the ASTM D4814 standard for automotive spark-ignition engine fuel can be readily produced from these processes, it is unclear how the composition of MTG may affect engine performance and emissions. Here, in this paper, a surrogate for an MTG is used to numerically study the effects of gasoline composition on knock propensity and on the sensitivity of knock to thermal and fuel stratification, to oxygen dilution and to nitric oxide from exhaust gas recirculation of residual gases. Simulations were performed in ANSYS CHEMKIN-PRO using a comprehensive chemical kinetic mechanism for gasoline surrogates, and results of the MTG surrogate were compared against those of a petroleum-based regular E10 gasoline, termed PACE-20. A premium-grade MTG fuel was also formulated by adding ethanol to the MTG surrogate, and results were compared against those of four premium-grade, gasoline-like fuels representative of future alternative gasoline formulations. Surrogates and mechanism were evaluated by comparison against experimental engine data, and the model showed high accuracy at stoichiometric conditions (mean absolute error of ignition timing equal to 1.46 crank angle degrees) but larger deviations at lean conditions (mean absolute error of ignition timing equal to 5.52 crank angle degrees). Despite the fact that the MTG surrogate has a RON 1.1 units higher than that of PACE-20, it may show higher knock propensity at medium temperature conditions due to a less intense NTC behavior. MTG autoignition was more temperature- and equivalence ratio-sensitive than that of PACE20, suggesting that MTG can benefit more from naturally-occurring thermal stratification or from induced fuel stratification of the end gas to mitigate knock intensity. The sensitivity of autoignition reactivity to oxygen dilution and to NO concentration was higher for MTG than for regular gasoline at medium loads, but the opposite trend was observed at high loads due to the effect of pressure on the low-temperature chemistry of regular gasoline. Approximately 14 % vol ethanol content was required to upgrade the octane rating of MTG from regular grade to premium grade. Adding 13.6 % vol ethanol made the fuel autoignition less sensitive to both oxygen dilution and NO content (ignition time varies approx. 17 % and 50 % less with oxygen dilution and NO addition, respectively, when adding ethanol at high engine loads).

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2023

Pretreatment of Algae for the Production of Fuels and Chemical Coproducts

Algal biomass is a promising resource for producing renewable fuels and chemicals, but despite decades of research, algal biorefining remains in a pre-commercial state. Recent economic analyses have indicated that high-value co-products are necessary to offset the cost of fuel production, implying the need for algae fractionation technology. One promising fractionation approach is Combined Algal Processing (CAP), which pretreats and extracts algal biomass to produce a fermentable aqueous hydrolysate, an organic lipid fraction, and a residual solids fraction. The CAP approach has historically employed a dilute acid pretreatment to lyse cells and solubilize algal carbohydrates for fermentation of the hydrolysate phase, but we recently identified alternative pretreatments with the potential to decrease costs and environmental impacts, including different implementations of dilute acid pretreatment, dilute alkali pretreatment, enzymatic pretreatment, and flash hydrolysis. We conducted a screening of six different pretreatment approaches across nine algae strains of varying composition, and measured pretreatment effectiveness as a combination of carbon and nitrogen solubilization, lipid extraction yield, and lipid speciation. In this screening, we found traditional dilute acid pretreatment to provide the most robust pretreatment performance, though other pretreatments were competitive, and some performed better for certain strains of algae. These results highlight the interplay between algae composition and pretreatment effectiveness.

algae↗
DOE OSTI2020

Shifting agricultural practices to produce sustainable, low carbon intensity feedstocks for biofuel production

The carbon intensity (CI) of biofuel's well-to-pump life cycle is calculated by life cycle analysis (LCA) to account for the energy/material inputs of the feedstock production and fuel conversion stages and the associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during these stages. The LCA is used by the California Air Resources Board's Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) program to calculate CI and monetary credits are issued based on the difference between a given fuel's CI and a reference fuel's CI. Through the Tier 2 certification program under which individual fuel production facilities can submit their own CIs with their facility input data, the LCFS has driven innovative technologies to biofuel conversion facilities, resulting in substantial reductions in GHG emissions as compared to the baseline gasoline or diesel. A similar approach can be taken to allow feedstock petition in the LCFS so that lower-CI feedstock can be rewarded. Here we examined the potential for various agronomic practices to improve the GHG profiles of corn ethanol by performing feedstock-level CI analysis for the Midwestern United States. Our system boundary covers GHG emissions from the cradle-to-farm-gate activities (i.e. farm input manufacturing and feedstock production), along with the potential impacts of soil organic carbon change during feedstock production. We conducted scenario-based CI analysis of ethanol, coupled with regionalized inventory data, for various farming practices to manage corn fields, and identified key parameters affecting cradle-to-farm-gate GHG emissions. The results demonstrate large spatial variations in CI of ethanol due to farm input use and land management practices. In particular, adopting conservation tillage, reducing nitrogen fertilizer use, and implementing cover crops has the potential to reduce GHG emissions per unit corn produced when compared to a baseline scenario of corn–soybean rotation. This work shows a large potential emission offset opportunity by allowing feedstock producers a path to Tier 2 petitions that reward low-CI feedstocks and further reduce biofuels' CI. The prevalence of significant acreage that has not been optimized for CI suggests that policy changes that incentivize optimization of this parameter could provide significant additionality over current trends in farm efficiency and adoption of conservation practice.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Techno-economic assessment for the production of algal fuels and value-added products: opportunities for high-protein microalgae conversion

Abstract Background Microalgae possess numerous advantages for use as a feedstock in producing renewable fuels and products, with techno-economic analysis (TEA) frequently used to highlight the economic potential and technical challenges of utilizing this biomass in a biorefinery context. However, many historical TEA studies have focused on the conversion of biomass with elevated levels of carbohydrates and lipids and lower levels of protein, incurring substantial burdens on the ability to achieve high cultivation productivity rates relative to nutrient-replete, high-protein biomass. Given a strong dependence of algal biomass production costs on cultivation productivity, further TEA assessment is needed to understand the economic potential for utilizing potentially lower-cost but lower-quality, high-protein microalgae for biorefinery conversion. Results In this work, we conduct rigorous TEA modeling to assess the economic viability of two conceptual technology pathways for processing proteinaceous algae into a suite of fuels and products. One approach, termed mild oxidative treatment and upgrading (MOTU), makes use of a series of thermo-catalytic operations to upgrade solubilized proteins and carbohydrates to hydrocarbon fuels, while another alternative focuses on the biological conversion of those substrates to oxygenated fuels in the form of mixed alcohols (MA). Both pathways rely on the production of polyurethanes from unsaturated fatty acids and valorization of unconverted solids for use as a material for synthesizing bioplastics. The assessment found similar, albeit slightly higher fuel yields and lower costs for the MA pathway, translating to a residual solids selling price of $899/ton for MA versus $1033/ton for MOTU as would be required to support a $2.50/gallon gasoline equivalent (GGE) fuel selling price. A variation of the MA pathway including subsequent upgrading of the mixed alcohols to hydrocarbon fuels (MAU) reflected a required solids selling price of $975/ton. Conclusion The slight advantages observed for the MA pathway are partially attributed to a boundary that stops at oxygenated fuels versus fungible drop-in hydrocarbon fuels through a more complex MOTU configuration, with more comparable results obtained for the MAU scenario. In either case, it was shown that an integrated algal biorefinery can be economical through optimal strategies to utilize and valorize all fractions of the biomass.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Monolithic Photoelectrochemical CO 2 Reduction Producing Syngas at 10% Efficiency

We report increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions have prompted the search for photoelectrochemical (PEC) methods of converting CO 2 to useful commodity products, including fuels. Ideally, such PEC approaches will be sustained using only sunlight, water, and CO 2 as energetic and reactant inputs. However, low peak conversion efficiencies (< 5%) have made commercialization of fully-integrated PEC devices prohibitive. Here, a 4 cm 2 monolithic PEC device exceeding 10% solar-to-fuel efficiency with principal fuel products of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is reported. The corresponding solar-to-CO and solar-to-H 2 efficiencies are 7% and 3.5%, respectively. Screening of a range of operating conditions reveals a tunable product mixture of H 2 and CO using a gold electrocatalyst. Accordingly, it is shown that device optimization yields a H 2 -to-CO ratio of 1:2 commonly present in synthesis gas (syngas). Notably, the modularity and facile fabrication of this device permit the incorporation of a broad array of materials for various applications. For example, the electrocatalyst may easily be swapped to target a different set of products.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Advanced Fuel Cycle Cost Basis Report: Module D1-7 Contact-Handled Pelletized Pressurized Heavy Water (PHWR) UOX Fuel Fabrication (Rev.1)

In addition to literature-based pressurized heavy-water reactor (PHWR) fuel price information in the 2017 AFC-CBR, the what-it-takes (WIT) unit cost data in this update is informed by new analysis and escalation of the 1978 PHWR-UOX fuel life cycle cost (LCC) data from ORNL reports prepared for the 1977–1980 Nonproliferation Alternative Systems Assessment Program (NASAP). (These reports are referenced and summarized in detail in Module D1-PR.) The PHWR fuel fabrication LCC data in these reports is scaled from a bottom-up cost estimate for a reference technology pressurized-water reactor (PWR)—uranium oxide (UOX) fuel fabrication plant by using algorithms that consider the manufacturing process complexity, fuel design complexity, plant floor space requirements, and the radiation and health, safety, and environmental (HS&E) regulatory environment of PHWR-UOX fuel production vis-à-vis light-water reactor (LWR)-UOX production (PWR fuel in this case). The module name has been changed from “Canadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU)” to the more generic PHWR fuel fabrication in recognition that not all power reactors that might use this fuel type are considered. Unfortunately, the detailed algorithms and their design bases were not archived at the end of the NASAP effort of the commercial CANDU concept specifically developed in the middle of the last century by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL).

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗