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DOE OSTI2026

Hydrogeological assessment of CO2 containment assurance and wellbore integrity at a Gulf Coast storage site

Abstract A large-scale carbon capture and storage (CCS) initiative on the Texas Gulf Coast serves as a premier demonstration of the U.S. Department of Energy’s CarbonSAFE program. Targeting deep saline formations, specifically Oligo-Miocene deltaic sequences, the project aims to establish technical and commercial viability for geologic CO2 storage within a major industrial corridor. This study provides a rigorous hydrogeological assessment to support Class VI permitting by quantifying the high degree of containment security. Utilizing a compositional reservoir simulator, we developed a suite of 27 distinct simulation cases to evaluate vertical plume dynamics near both planned injection wells and proximal legacy infrastructure. To ensure numerical accuracy near wellbores, we implemented a refined mesh strategy, determining that a 5.6 ft × 5.6 ft grid refinement offered the optimal balance between computational efficiency and descriptive precision. The modeling framework utilized a systematic sensitivity-based approach to evaluate the mechanical redundancy of the subsurface system by performing a bounding analysis of wellbore interfaces against hypothetical high-permeability microannuli. By systematically isolating competing physical drivers, including permeability, porosity, gas hysteresis, thermal gradients, salinity, and solubility trapping (quantified via Henry’s law with dynamically adjusted coefficients), this work moves beyond binary assessments to establish a nuanced hierarchy of containment factors. The results confirm that primary trapping mechanisms (e.g., gas hysteresis and solubility), combined with the site's unique geomechanical stratigraphy, significantly restrict vertical mobility and reinforce the robust containment security of the reservoir. Baseline results demonstrate substantial vertical separation between the CO2 plume and the upper confining system, ensuring robust containment. Sensitivity analysis reveals that even under highly conservative bounding scenarios—assuming theoretical 10-Darcy pathways at specific wellbore locations—the 2,900-ft thick multi-layered confining zone remains a reliable barrier. In these hypothetical upper-bound cases, peak upward fluxes of CO2 and saltwater after 15 years of injection remain localized and dissipate rapidly within the lower sections of the confining interval, leaving the integrity of the seal uncompromised. Furthermore, the study identifies that while localized wellbore pathways define theoretical upper bounds of vertical migration, the Area of Review (AoR) is primarily sensitive to regional thermal gradients and hysteresis, which can influence the AoR by over 3,000 acres in pessimistic configurations. Also, primary trapping mechanisms, specifically gas hysteresis and solubility, work in tandem with the Gulf Coast’s unique geomechanical stratigraphy to significantly restrict vertical mobility. Ductile, smectite-rich mudstones facilitate natural borehole convergence and the self-healing of potential conduits, creating a natural geomechanical bridge that effectively mitigates migration potential at both current injection points and legacy-well locations. This comprehensive modeling effort demonstrates that the integration of high-resolution wellbore simulations and regional geomechanical observations confirms the long-term storage security of the studied site, providing a physics-based foundation for industrial-scale CCS deployments. This modeling framework establishes a baseline for future research into coupled geomechanical effects, such as time-dependent borehole convergence, to further refine long-term containment projections. Acknowledgements We thank the Gulf Coast Carbon Center (GCCC) at the Bureau of Economic Geology for foundational research support. We appreciate Alex Bump for technical guidance and David Hoffman for model mesh generation. This work used TACC’s Frontera cluster for simulations and CMG Ltd. software licenses provided to UT-Austin. This material is based upon work supported by the Department of Energy under Award Number DE-FE0032338. Disclaimer This material is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Fossil Energy and Carbon Management Office under the CarbonSAFE program, award Number DE-FE0032338. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

North Dakota Integrated Carbon Storage Complex Feasibility Study. Final report

In spring 2017, the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) initiated an effort to determine the feasibility of developing a commercial-scale CO 2 geologic storage complex able to store 50+ million tonnes (Mt) of CO 2 in central North Dakota safely, permanently, and economically. The objective was to fulfill the goals of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Carbon Storage Assurance Facility Enterprise (CarbonSAFE) Initiative and address technical and nontechnical challenges specific to commercial-scale deployment of a CO2 storage project. The findings clearly show that the concept of capturing CO 2 from a lignite-fired electrical generation facility in central North Dakota and safely and permanently storing the CO 2 in the deep subsurface is indeed technically, economically, and socially feasible. This project evaluated two study areas and their respective geologic storage complexes located adjacent to separate coal-fired facilities in North Dakota: the Basin Electric Power Cooperative (BEPC)-owned Great Plains Synfuels Plant (GPSP) and the Minnkota Power Cooperative (Minnkota)-owned Milton R. Young Station (MRYS). These locations, one with CO 2 capture in place and an existing CO 2 pipeline, are bolstered by progressive North Dakota pore space ownership and long-term liability laws. These elements and a motivated team created an ideal synergistic scenario for ensuring success of the CarbonSAFE Initiative and promoting North Dakota’s statewide vision for carbon management. The project included drilling two new geologic characterization wells, integrating an existing 3-D seismic survey, creating a geologic model subsequently used for injection simulation, a risk assessment, public outreach, and generating a site development plan based on results. In addition, the performance of select National Risk Assessment Partnership tools was evaluated. The geologic characterization wells were drilled ~5600 feet deep to the Broom Creek Formation; ~350 feet of core was retrieved from each well. The core included the Broom Creek (targeted injection zone) and a portion of the overlying Opeche Shale (seal). The Flemmer-1 well, west of Beulah, North Dakota, yielded 169 feet of sandstone. The BNI-1 well located south of Center, North Dakota, yielded 124 feet of sandstone. In each case, laboratory analysis of the sandstone showed permeability in the 300–1000-mD range, with porosity of 20%–30%. The Flemmer-1 well was sited within the boundaries of an existing 3-D seismic survey. Colocating the well with the seismic survey maximized the relationship between new and legacy data and developed a first-of-its-kind interpretation of the geologic fabric of the Broom Creek. Geologic characterization data were integrated into a 5544-mi 2 geocellular model that encompassed both new wells and stratigraphy from the surface to the Amsden Formation (underlying the Broom Creek). The model was later expanded vertically to include the deeper Black Island–Deadwood interval to examine its potential viability as a storage target. The geocellular model provided the foundation for dynamic simulation of CO 2 into the Broom Creek. Results of the simulation suggest that the Broom Creek could accept the DOE target rate of 2 Mt/yr of CO 2 into as few as two wells. To bracket the expected capture from MRYS, simulations were also investigated for a 4-Mt/yr rate near MRYS. Although more wells are needed (two additional), the Broom Creek still has the storage resource to accept the CO 2 at the increased rate. A risk assessment exercise was conducted to identify and assess technical and nontechnical risks that could prevent potential candidate storage complexes within the study area from serving as commercial storage sites. The assessment identified and evaluated six technical risk categories: 1) CO 2 injectivity, 2) storage capacity, 3) lateral migration of CO 2 , 4) lateral pressure propagation, 5) vertical migration of CO 2 or formation brine, and 6) induced seismicity. Following two rounds of analysis and scoring, no risks were determined to preclude continued efforts to develop carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) in central North Dakota. The risk assessment results will be used to guide future site characterization, modeling and simulation, and monitoring activities. A specific nontechnical strategic risk based on challenges that may be realized in amalgamation of pore space resulted in vertically expanding the geologic model to incorporate the potential for stacked storage in multiple saline reservoirs. By including the Black Island–Deadwood interval (the basal sedimentary reservoir in this region), the amalgamated areal extent could be reduced by as much as 45%. Working with a smaller geographic area reduces risks and costs associated with monitoring and pore space leasing. An economic evaluation incorporating capture; transport (<5 mi); Class VI wells; permitting; and monitoring, verification, and accounting suggests implementing commercial-scale CCUS is economically attractive if the federal tax benefits of 45Q are included. This is validated by Minnkota’s continued pursuit of CO 2 capture and geologic storage at MRYS through its Project Tundra initiative, indicating that there is a business case for CCUS in central North Dakota. Currently, North Dakota is the only state with underground injection control (UIC) Class VI primacy. Built into the North Dakota Century Code is a series of regulatory requirements that guide the process to obtain a Class VI CO 2 storage facility permit. As part of this project, a site development plan was compiled to assure compliance with North Dakota’s requirements to permit a commercial-scale CO 2 storage operation and includes a prospective time line encompassing a general breakdown of activities. In total, an estimated 30 months would be needed to execute the necessary steps to attain a North Dakota CO 2 storage facility permit. Outreach was an integral part of the project and encompassed any project-related activity that had contact or exposure beyond the project team. The goals of outreach were to foster an environment from which stakeholders could make informed decisions about the project and gauge community receptiveness to a CCUS project. A consistent set of messages and outreach products were developed in conjunction with an outreach advisory board that integrated project partners and team members. To gauge public acceptability of geologically storing CO 2 , 5611 households in the project area were invited to participate in an online survey. The survey results indicate that the public attitude regarding CCUS is neutral to positive, with strong sentiment that CO 2 capture and storage may be an approach to maintain the economic vitality of the region. To achieve project objectives, critical support in the form of financial backing, engineering evaluations, site access, outreach collaboration, operations data, risk assessment/evaluation, and software access was provided by BEPC, the North Dakota Industrial Commission Lignite Research Council, ALLETE Clean Energy, BNI Energy, North American Coal Corporation, Minnkota, Prairie Public Broadcasting, Computer Modelling Group Ltd., and Schlumberger.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Business Environment Study (Subtask 5.1)

In 2016, WVR acquired the Wabash Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Plant north of Terre Haute, Indiana. Initially, WVR intended to use the plant to produce ammonia using syngas converted to hydrogen. Part of the business plan was to capture and sequester the CO 2 byproduct with the goal of a net-zero carbon emitting plant. Now, with the demand for clean hydrogen-based power and fuel cell energy, the plant intends to produce power and sell hydrogen as a fuel source, still with the intent to sequester CO 2 and achieve net-zero emissions. The Wabash CarbonSAFE project’s objectives are to establish the feasibility of developing a commercial-scale geological storage complex at the WVR plant in Vigo County, Indiana, for storage of 50 million tonnes or more of CO 2 . The plant is expected to produce up to 2 million tons (1.82 million tonnes) of CO 2 annually as a byproduct of hydrogen production. Wabash CarbonSAFE has examined the feasibility of geologic storage of the CO 2 in the Potosi Dolomite Storage Complex of the Illinois Basin via an onsite characterization well at the WVR plant site. This document explores the business requirements to undertake such a project, outlining the outside influences on a business venture such as legislation, legal, regulatory, and business climate factors. This document then discusses the CO 2 source, potential partner sources, and the business financials that allow CCS to be commercially viable for Wabash Valley Resources.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Policy, Regulatory, Legal, and Permitting Evaluation Task 6.0 (Technical Report)

This report revisits and updates work completed for the Phase I CarbonSAFE Illinois - East Sub Basin project, the precursor to the Phase II Wabash CarbonSAFE project; the current report summarizes the policy, regulatory, legal, and permitting considerations to-date as related to geologic CO 2 storage at the Wabash Valley Resources (WVR) gasification plant site in Vigo County, Indiana.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Geology of The Mt. Simon Sandstone Storage Complex at the Wabash #1 Well, Vigo Co., Indiana (Subtask 7.2, Technical Report)

The Wabash CarbonSAFE project drilled the Wabash #1 stratigraphic test well (ID# 168045) at the Wabash Valley Resources (WVR) IGCC facility in Vigo County, Indiana, to characterize and evaluate the basal Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone for commercial-scale CO 2 storage near the site. This report presents an extensive geologic characterization of the Mt. Simon storage complex and relevant data collected from the Wabash #1 well, such as lithologic data collected from cuttings and core, geophysical logging, geomechanical analysis of core samples, and well testing and fluid sampling within the Mt. Simon Sandstone. The Mt. Simon storage complex comprises two major sections: the Mt. Simon Sandstone as the potential reservoir and the overlying Eau Claire Formation as its primary seal. Within the report, an extensive depositional, sedimentological, and geochronologic characterization of the Mt. Simon is included with supportive chapters on the regional geology and the geophysical, petrophysical, and petrologic data collected during the project. An overview of 2D seismic reflection data collected from and around the test well is presented. Also presented are chapters on the characterization of the sealing Eau Claire Formation, including a chapter on the capacity of the primary and secondary seals to the Mt. Simon as well as a chapter on geomechanical testing results of the Eau Claire Formation and Mt. Simon Sandstone. Some of the information discussed in this report was used in the development of static and dynamic geologic models of the Mt. Simon Sandstone storage complex. The static and dynamic modeling of CO 2 injection in the Mt. Simon Sandstone are discussed in a separate report (Dessenberger et al., 2022) under the Wabash CarbonSAFE project.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Geologic Study in Central North Dakota

Fact sheet explaining the process of drilling a test hole to collect data for the North Dakota CarbonSAFE project. North Dakota CarbonSAFE is an Energy & Environmental Research Center project, conducted in partnership with the U.S. Department of Energy.

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DOE OSTI2023

ISGS Seal wells

Computed tomography and core logger data described in Technical Report "Computed Tomography Scanning and Geophysical Measurements of the CarbonSAFE Seal Integrity Wells in the Illinois Basin" by Paronish et al., 2023

carbon storage↗

DOE OSTI2023

Illinois Storage Corridor One Earth Energy #1 Core

Computed Tomography and core logger data of the Illinois Storage Corridor One Earth Energy #1 Core, a DOE-NETL funded CarbonSAFE project run by the Illinois State Geological Survey

CarbonSafe↗

DOE OSTI2022

Geochronology of Cambrian Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks in the Illinois Basin: Defining the Illinois Aulacogen

The Wabash #1 well, drilled for the Wabash CarbonSAFE Project and located in Vigo County, Indiana, USA, was drilled in early 2020 as a stratigraphic test well to characterize and evaluate the basal Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone for carbon dioxide storage (TD=8750 ft; 2667 m). The Wabash #1 well is located along the eastern flank of a newly interpreted Cambrian aulacogen that occurs in western Indiana and eastern Illinois. Here we present 938 new detrital zircon U-Pb ages (LA-ICPMS) from early Cambrian sandstones sampled near the base of the well. A basalt lava flow was penetrated at ~8530 ft (2600 m) and has an 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age of 525.03 +/- 1.10 Ma, which represents the first known Cambrian crust in the Illinois Basin. The two sandstone samples from beneath the basalt are dominated by zircons derived from the Midcontinent Granite-Rhyolite terrane. The sandstone samples from above the basalt reflect a mixture of these locally derived Mazatzal and Granite-Rhyolite terrane zircons, but also distal Archean, Grenville, and Yavapai zircons. Each sample has small numbers of Cambrian zircons, which is consistent with those in basal Cambrian sandstones in other deep wells to the west. These early Cambrian detrital zircons and early Cambrian age of the basalt, combined with sediment thickness patterns permit the interpretation of the Illinois aulacogen, which formed during the final stage of Rodinian rifting.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Evaluation of Containment and Geomechanical Risks at Integrated Mid-Content Stacked Carbon Storage Hub Sites

The U.S. Department of Energy is leading the development of CCS through collaborative projects and programs to not only develop and demonstrate the technology but to also quantify the risks and provide tools that site operators can use to develop a site-specific understanding of their risk to enable successful project operations. This report summarizes results and findings from the application of risk-assessment tools to an industrial-scale Geologic Carbon Storage (GCS) project. Specifically, we applied the National Risk Assessment Partnership’s (NRAP) Open Integrated Assessment Model (NRAP-Open-IAM) and State of Stress Assessment Tool (SOSAT) to two candidate sites being considered for storage by the Integrated Midcontinent Stacked Carbon Storage Hub (IMSCS-Hub) project team. These sites, Sleepy Hollow Field in Nebraska and Patterson Field in Kansas, have historical oil and gas production and thus are attractive candidates to store the 50 million metric tons (Mt), which is the CarbonSAFE objective. Because these sites have historical operations, they have a significant number of existing wells that pose a risk for well leakage. Additionally, the storage formations will undergo significant pore pressure perturbation (i.e., increase due to CO 2 injection). Hence, we have selected the two NRAP tools best suited to study the risks associated with well leakage and geomechanical risks. The objective of the study was not only to assess the risk at the site, but to also improve the NRAP tools through application using real site data on an ongoing project.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Establishing an Early CO 2 Storage Complex in Kemper County, Mississippi: Project ECO 2 S (Phase III) (Final Progress Report)

“Establishing an Early CO 2 Storage Complex in Kemper County, Mississippi (Project ECO 2 S)” is an early mover project within the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and National Energy Technology Laboratory’s Carbon Storage Assurance Facility Enterprise, or CarbonSAFE, initiative. Phase III of Project ECO2S advanced the foundational work of Phase II, which confirmed the potential for safely, permanently, and economically storing commercial volumes of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the regionally significant saline reservoir system near Mississippi Power Company’s (MPC) Kemper County Energy Facility. The primary objective of Phase III was to complete detailed site characterization necessary to obtain an Underground Injection Control (UIC) Class VI Permit to Construct from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This involved transitioning from regional geologic assessments to high-resolution site-specific analyses.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS) Milestone 3.4 Report: Complete Well Design and Drilling Plan

We are pleased to present the following materials, which serve as confirmation of the successful completion of Task 3.4 Complete Well Design and Drilling Plan Milestone, in accordance with the Project OASIS Project Management Plan. More specifically, the following provides confirmation of a team-wide call that was held on September 25, 2023, to discuss the CarbonSAFE Phase II drilling program, the well drilling prognosis, and an overview of risks associated with the program by category as well as probability and impact. A comprehensive Site-Specific Drilling Report will be provided to DOE-NETL 30 days after completion of drilling activities.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS), Task 5.0 Deliverable: Infrastructure Assessment Report

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS) - Deliverable Task 7: Risk Assessment

The “Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County: Project OASIS” CarbonSAFE Phase II Project seeks to build on regional data sets that demonstrate that the subsurface within Shelby County, Alabama has the potential to store commercial volumes of CO 2 safely, permanently, and economically. The primary target CO 2 Storage Complex is the deep Ketona Dolomite located within a 140 square mile area of the Valley and Ridge Region of Alabama. This deep saline reservoir is beneath a confining system encompassing at least 6,500 ft of shales and other low permeability sediments. Project OASIS drilled a deep stratigraphic test well to confirm the geological properties of the confining system and storage reservoir(s) within the Storage Complex. The geological data was incorporated into numerical models to establish the areal extent of the CO 2 plume and help design the storage site and its monitoring system. The project is managed by the Southern States Energy Board (SSEB), an interstate compact organization consisting of governors and state legislative leaders from sixteen southern states, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as an appointee by the President of the United States. The organizational compact provides it with access to state government organizations and legislatures. The Board also maintains an Associate Members program comprised of energy resource companies, utilities, trade groups, academic R&D science and technology experts and energy consultants. Further, the SSEB staff is experienced in managing and coordinating complex energy and environmental programs, from research programs to full-scale design and demonstrations of new and innovative technologies. Project OASIS is a public-private partnership of six entities with multiple principal investigators (PIs). SSEB’s Lead PI and Co-PI are responsible for all aspects of project performance in accordance with the DOE-NETL Cooperative Agreement. SSEB has issued subgrants to Advanced Resources International, Inc., Alabama A&M University, Auburn University, Crescent Resource Innovation, and Oklahoma State University. Advanced Resources International, Inc., issued subgrants to Baker Hughes and Loudon Technical Services for field services

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS): Task 8 Deliverable 8.0 - Commercialization Plan

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (OASIS) (Final Report)

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS) is a CarbonSAFE Phase II designed to support the U.S. Department of Energy’s goals of reducing project risks and costs for future carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) projects, bringing more storage resources into commercial classifications that support business and financial decisions, and encouraging more rapid growth of a vibrant, geographically widespread industry for geologic carbon storage.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2022

Designing monitoring networks for local earthquakes

Abstract Seismic networks are essential for monitoring local earthquakes in connection to industrial activities, including wastewater injection and CO2 sequestration. Because these networks are typically deployed for short periods of time at specific sites, it is beneficial to develop best practices for efficient and effective installation and monitoring. Such standards are available for regional earthquake and microseismic monitoring, but not readily available for local scale (tens of kilometer scale) monitoring. Once the region of interest has been determined, the key parameters for establishing a network are available monitoring station locations, site noise, and site utility. Networks should be designed based on the project monitoring goals for earthquake magnitude and density. Herein, a network was established at the Patterson and Hartland Oil Fields in western Kansas in association with a US Department of Energy CarbonSAFE carbon capture and sequestration research project. We employed observations from an analog local network, the Wellington Earthquake Monitoring Network in south-central Kansas, to assess site noise and estimate earthquake detection thresholds for the Patterson and Hartland fields. Noise from oil production facilities was evaluated, concluding that oil lease sites are suitable for monitoring small local earthquakes (M1-M3). The network was designed to have a magnitude of completeness of M1 while using station locations on existing field operator leases. Fifteen months of continuous network operation demonstrates reliable and efficient local earthquake monitoring and provides best practices recommendations for similar operations.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Permitting A Coal-Fired 4-MMt/yr CCS Project in North Dakota, USA

Paper presented at 16th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT-16), October 23–27, 2022, Lyon, France. As part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s CarbonSAFE Program, the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC), in partnership with Minnkota Power Cooperative, Inc. (Minnkota), conducted commercial-scale site characterization and permitting of two deep saline formations for the geologic storage of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. Captured as part of Minnkota’s Tundra SGS (secure geologic storage) project, these storage horizons would collectively and permanently store an annual average of 4 million metric tons (MMt) of CO 2 .

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