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NASA NTRS2021

Thermal Management System Design for Electrified Aircraft Propulsion Concepts

This paper describes the development of thermal management systems (TMS) for three electrified aircraft propulsion (EAP) vehicle concepts released by NASA that span the UAM, regional, and single-aisle markets. For each EAP concept, a conventional TMS is designed for two electric component technology levels: state of the art and advanced. The goals for the paper are to compare the TMS designs for the above EAP concepts, to study how changes in requirements affect the TMS subcomponents, and to develop generalized TMS sizing relations. Each conventional TMS concept utilizes a liquid-based cooling methodology and is designed to cool the EAP electrical components only. The design parameters considered in this study include TMS architecture variation due to differing vehicle cooling requirements, electrical component efficiencies, vehicle total fuel burn or energy consumption, and electrical component operating temperatures. Results show that cooling components with low temperature limits increases TMS weight and demonstrate that efficiency gains of the specific technologies can net a lower weight TMS system despite more stringent temperature limits.

Thermal management system↗
NASA NTRS1933

Measurement of the Differential and Total Thrust and Torque of Six Full-Scale Adjustable-Pitch Propellers

Force measurements giving total thrust and torque, and propeller slip stream surveys giving differential thrust and torque were simultaneously made on each of six full-scale propellers in the 20-foot propeller-research tunnel of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. They were adjustable-pitch metal propellers 9.5 feet in diameter; three had modified Clark Y blade sections and three had modified RAF-6 blade sections. This report gives the differential thrust and torque and the variation caused by changing the propeller tip speed and the pitch setting. The total thrust and torque obtained from integration of the thrust and torque distribution curves are compared with those obtained by direct force measurements.

Stickle, George W↗
NASA NTRS1973

Near earth magnetic disturbance in total field at high latitudes. 2: Interpretation of data from OGO's 2, 4, and 6

Variations in the scalar magnetic field (delta B) from the polar orbiting OGO 2, 4, and 6 spacecraft, with supporting vector magnetic field data from surface observatories, were analyzed at dipole latitudes above 55 deg. Although individual satellite passes, at low altitudes, confirm the existence of electrojet currents, neither individual satellite passes nor contours of average delta B are consistent with latitudinally narrow electrojet currents as the principal source of delta B at the satellite. The ratio of delta B magnitudes in positive and negative regions is variable. The characteristics of the negative delta B region indicate a latitudinally broad ionospheric source. Comparison of the surface magnetic disturbance caused by the equivalent current with the measured average surface disturbance shows good agreement except in localized details. Because delta B decreases very slowly with altitude in the positive delta B region, it is not possible to account for this disturbance in terms of ionospheric currents. The contribution to the satellite delta B due to a model electrojet, which reproduced the measured average surface horizontal disturbance, was computed. Definitive identification of all sources of positive delta B is not possible at this time.

Langel, R. A.↗
NASA NTRS1988

Design point variation of 3-D loss and deviation for axial compressor middle stages

The available data on middle-stage research compressors operating near design point are used to derive simple empirical models for the spanwise variation of three-dimensional viscous loss coefficients for middle-stage axial compressor blading. The models make it possible to quickly estimate the total loss and deviation across the blade span when the three-dimensional distribution is superimposed on the two-dimensional variation calculated for each blade element. It is noted that extrapolated estimates should be used with caution since the correlations have been derived from a limited data base.

Roberts, William B.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Measuring Greenland Ice Mass Variation With Gravity Recovery and the Climate Experiment Gravity and GPS

The response of the Greenland ice sheet to climate change could significantly alter sea level. The ice sheet was much thicker at the last glacial maximum. To gain insight into the global change process and the future trend, it is important to evaluate the ice mass variation as a function of time and space. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission to fly in 2001 for 5 years will measure gravity changes associated with the current ice variation and the solid earth's response to past variations. Our objective is to assess the separability of different change sources, accuracy and resolution in the mass variation determination by the new gravity data and possible Global Positioning System (GPS) bedrock uplift measurements. We use a reference parameter state that follows a dynamic ice model for current mass variation and a variant of the Tushingham and Peltier ICE-3G deglaciation model for historical deglaciation. The current linear trend is also assumed to have started 5 kyr ago. The Earth model is fixed as preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) with four viscoelastic layers. A discrete Bayesian inverse algorithm is developed employing an isotropic Gaussian a priori covariance function over the ice sheet and time. We use data noise predicted by the University of Texas and JPL for major GRACE error sources. A 2 mm/yr uplift uncertainty is assumed for GPS occupation time of 5 years. We then carry out covariance analysis and inverse simulation using GRACE geoid coefficients up to degree 180 in conjunction with a number of GPS uplift rates. Present-day ice mass variation and historical deglaciation are solved simultaneously over 146 grids of roughly 110 km x 110 km and with 6 time increments of 3 kyr each, along with a common starting epoch of the current trend. For present-day ice thickness change, the covariance analysis using GRACE geoid data alone results in a root mean square (RMS) posterior root variance of 2.6 cm/yr, with fairly large a priori uncertainties in the parameters and a Gaussian correlation length of 350 km. Simulated inverse can successfully recover most features in the reference present-day change. The RMS difference between them over the grids is 2.8 cm/yr. The RMS difference becomes 1.1 cm/yr when both are averaged with a half Gaussian wavelength of 150 km. With a fixed Earth model, GRACE alone can separate the geoid signals due to past and current load fairly well. Shown are the reference geoid signatures of direct and elastic effects of the current trend, the viscoelastic effect of the same trend starting from 5 kyr ago, the Post Glacial Rebound (PGR), and the predicted GRACE geoid error. The difference between the reference and inverse modeled total viscoelastic signatures is also shown. Although past and current ice mass variations are allowed the same spatial scale, their geoid signals have different spatial patterns. GPS data can contribute to the ice mass determination as well. Additional information is contained in the original.

Wu, Xiao-Ping↗
NASA NTRS2017

HMI Data Driven Magnetohydrodynamic Model Predicted Active Region Photospheric Heating Rates: Their Scale Invariant, Flare Like Power Law Distributions, and Their Possible Association With Flares

A data driven, near photospheric, 3 D, non-force free magnetohydrodynamic model pre- dicts time series of the complete current density, and the resistive heating rate Q at the photosphere in neutral line regions (NLRs) of 14 active regions (ARs). The model is driven by time series of the magnetic field B observed by the Helioseismic & Magnetic Imager on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) satellite. Spurious Doppler periods due to SDO orbital motion are filtered out of the time series for B in every AR pixel. Errors in B due to these periods can be significant. The number of occurrences N(q) of values of Q > or = q for each AR time series is found to be a scale invariant power law distribution, N(Q) / Q−s, above an AR dependent threshold value of Q, where 0.3952 < or = s < or = 0.5298 with mean and standard deviation of 0.4678 and 0.0454, indicating little variation between ARs. Observations show that the number of occurrences N(E) of coronal flares with a total energy released > or = E obeys the same type of distribution, N(E) / E−S, above an AR dependent threshold value of E, with 0.38 < or approx. S < or approx. 0.60, also with little variation among ARs. Within error margins the ranges of s and S are nearly identical. This strong similarity between N(Q) and N(E) suggests a fundamental connection between the process that drives coronal flares and the process that drives photospheric NLR heating rates in ARs. In addition, results suggest it is plausible that spikes in Q, several orders of magnitude above background values, are correlated with times of the subsequent occurrence of M or X flares.

Goodman, Michael L.↗
NASA NTRS2017

HMI Data Driven Magnetohydrodynamic Model Predicted Active Region Photospheric Heating Rates: Their Scale Invariant, Flare Like Power Law Distributions, and Their Possible Association With Flares

A data driven, near photospheric, 3 D, non-force free magnetohydrodynamic model predicts time series of the complete current density, and the resistive heating rate Q at the photosphere in neutral line regions (NLRs) of 14 active regions (ARs). The model is driven by time series of the magnetic field B observed by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) satellite. Spurious Doppler periods due to SDO orbital motion are filtered out of the time series for B in every AR pixel. Errors in B due to these periods can be significant. The number of occurrences N(q) of values of Q > or = q for each AR time series is found to be a scale invariant power law distribution, N(Q) / Q−s, above an AR dependent threshold value of Q, where 0.3952 < or = s < or = 0.5298 with mean and standard deviation of 0.4678 and 0.0454, indicating little variation between ARs. Observations show that the number of occurrences N(E) of coronal flares with a total energy released > or = E obeys the same type of distribution, N(E) / E−S, above an AR dependent threshold value of E, with 0.38 < or approx. S < or approx. 0.60, also with little variation among ARs. Within error margins the ranges of s and S are nearly identical. This strong similarity between N(Q) and N(E) suggests a fundamental connection between the process that drives coronal flares and the process that drives photospheric NLR heating rates in ARs. In addition, results suggest it is plausible that spikes in Q, several orders of magnitude above background values, are correlated with times of the subsequent occurrence of M or X flares.

Goodman, Michael L.↗
NASA NTRS1989

The global distribution on total ozone - Toms satellite measurements

The general behavior of total ozone by season and latitude was known before 1930 through the pioneering observations by Dobson. The ozone record at Oxford and other European stations was dominated by an annual cycle and by irregular short term fluctuations. The amplitude and phase of the annual cycle were determined at representative latitudes in both hemispheres. However, the short term variations appeared to be meteorological origin, although the specific cause could not be identified. Data from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) on the Nimbus 7 spacecraft, with global coverage at an average spatial resolution of 66 km, can now be used to completely map the total ozone field. These maps demonstrate that troughs and ridges in the upper troposphere are responsible for the large, short term ozone variations found at middle latitudes, while in the tropics, the steady, low ozone levels show broad scale structure associated with the Hadley circulation.

Krueger, Arlin J.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Ab initio method for calculating total cross sections

A method for calculating total cross sections without formally including nonelastic channels is presented. The idea is to use a one channel T-matrix variational principle with a complex correlation function. The derived T matrix is therefore not unitary. Elastic scattering is calculated from T-parallel-squared, but total scattering is derived from the imaginary part of T using the optical theorem. The method is applied to the spherically symmetric model of electron-hydrogen scattering. No spurious structure arises; results for sigma(el) and sigma(total) are in excellent agreement with calculations of Callaway and Oza (1984). The method has wide potential applicability.

Bhatia, A. K.↗
NASA NTRS2024

The Diurnal Variation of Dust and Water Ice Aerosol Optical Depth at Jezero Crater Observed By MEDA/TIRS Over A Full Martian Year

The Thermal InfraRed Sensor (TIRS) on the Perseverance rover has provided nearly two full Mars years of systematic monitoring of the total aerosol optical depth above Jezero Crater. These observations span a wide range of timescales, capturing seasonal patterns, diurnal variations, and minute-to-minute fluctuations in aerosol loading. By combining TIRS retrievals with orbital observations, the relative contributions of dust and water ice aerosols can be estimated, revealing their different seasonal and diurnal behaviors. The TIRS record shows distinct periods of dust storm activity, including strong regional storms during the perihelion season as well as short lived but intense dust events outside the typical dust storm season. Water ice clouds exhibit pronounced seasonal and diurnal variability, with peak activity occurring during the aphelion season but with a presence throughout the year. The diurnal variation of clouds differs significantly between the aphelion and perihelion seasons, with clouds persisting throughout the night during the aphelion season, while largely absent outside of specific periods after sunrise and sunset during the perihelion season. These results provide new insights into the complex behavior of aerosols at Jezero Crater and their connections to atmospheric dynamics and the Martian dust and water cycles.

Michael D Smith↗
NASA NTRS1990

Ozone measurements from the NOAA-9 and the Nimbus-7 satellites: Implications of short and long term variabilities

An overview is given of the measurements of total ozne and ozone profiles by the SBUV/2 instrument on the NOAA-9 spacecraft relative to similar measurements from the SBUV and TOMS instruments on Nimbus-7. It is shown that during the three year period from March 14, 1985, to February 28, 1988, when these data sets overlap, there have been significant changes in the calibrations of the three instruments which may be attributed to the drift of the NOSS-9 orbit to later equator crossing times (for SBUV/2). These changes in instrument characteristics have affected the absolute values of the trends derived from the three instruments, but their geophysical characteristics and response to short term variations are accurate and correlate well among the three instruments. For example, the total column ozone measured by the three instruments shows excellent agreement with respect to its day to day, seasonal, and latitudinal variabilities. At high latitudes, the day to day fluctuations in total ozone show a strong positive correlation with temperature in the lower stratosphere, as one might expect from the dynamical coupling of the two parameters at these latitudes.

Chandra, S.↗
NASA NTRS2018

K2 Precision Lightcurve: Twelve Days in the Pluto-Charon System

The Kepler spacecraft's imaging photometer monitored the Pluto system from October-December 2015 during Campaign 7 of the K2 extended mission. Kepler obtained an unprecedented and fortuitous nearly continuous 12-Pluto day lightcurve from measurements acquired every 30 min using long cadence sampling. This 3-month-long baseline anchors the Pluto+Charon lightcurve near the time of the New Horizons July 2015 encounter, observing at solar phase angles between 1.16° and 1.74°. Long-term modeling of Pluto's lightcurve will ultimately reveal its long-term seasonal variation. K2's combined Pluto+Charon lightcurves measured at this epoch have an average total amplitude of 0.120+/- 0.006, 0.07 magnitudes smaller than the amplitude predicted by a static frost model (Buie and Tholen, 1989) projected from Hubble Space Telescope surface maps (Buie et al., 1992). Subtracting a static Charon lightcurve from the Pluto+Charon K2 lightcurve produces the same results. Likewise, we subtract each rotation model from the model for the first full rotation and find that the average difference of all variations is 0.017 +/- 0.008 magnitudes. Moreover, the difference between the first and last K2 rotation is 0.005 magnitudes, implying that there are no significant changes in the lightcurve during the 3 months of K2 observations. These results are consistent with seasonal transport on Pluto's surface and the predictions of Buratti et al. (2015a). However, a detailed understanding of the surface-atmosphere interactions associated with these phenomena requires decades of monitoring.

Benecchi, S. D.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Seasonal Seismicity in the Lake Biwa Region of Central Japan Moderately Modulated by Lake Water Storage Changes

Seasonal seismicity in Japan has been observed and attributed to variations induced by hydrological loading, as well as atmospheric and pore-fluid pressure. We examine the seasonal variations of crustal (<15 km depth) and low magnitude (M < 4.5) earthquakes in central Japan near the Biwako-Seigan Fault Zone (BSFZ), and analyze their correlation with the annual hydrological cycle of nearby Lake Biwa, the largest freshwater lake in Japan. The 2002–2018 lake water storage is estimated using water-level gauge and satellite altimetry data. Regional surface mass loading from soil moisture and snow predicted by the Global Land Data Assimilation System is used to augment the lake mass variation. We compute the stress and stressing-rate changes induced by the surface mass loading from lake storage, snow, and soil moisture at seismogenic depth (10 km) along the BSFZ using a finite element model incorporating a 3D Earth structure. The results show that seasonal surface mass loading generates 1–5 kPa peak-to-peak Coulomb stress change and 2.5–15 kPa/year stressing-rate variations on the fault segments along the BSFZ. Two of the four fault segments present significant correlation between local seismicity rate and loading-derived stress and/or stressing rate changes. Among the hydrological load components, lake water, snow, and soil moisture exhibit different annual phases, and the lake water storage dominates the total annual stress changes. Our analysis indicates that seasonal surface hydrological loads, especially lake water variations, modulate the seismicity rate along the BSFZ in central Japan.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2016

Model Sensitivity Studies of the Decrease in Atmospheric Carbon Tetrachloride

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is an ozone-depleting substance, which is controlled by the Montreal Protocol and for which the atmospheric abundance is decreasing. However, the current observed rate of this decrease is known to be slower than expected based on reported CCl4 emissions and its estimated overall atmospheric lifetime. Here we use a three-dimensional (3-D) chemical transport model to investigate the impact on its predicted decay of uncertainties in the rates at which CCl4 is removed from the atmosphere by photolysis, by ocean uptake and by degradation in soils. The largest sink is atmospheric photolysis (74% of total), but a reported 10% uncertainty in its combined photolysis cross section and quantum yield has only a modest impact on the modelled rate of CCl4 decay. This is partly due to the limiting effect of the rate of transport of CCl4 from the main tropospheric reservoir to the stratosphere, where photolytic loss occurs. The model suggests large interannual variability in the magnitude of this stratospheric photolysis sink caused by variations in transport. The impact of uncertainty in the minor soil sink (9%of total) is also relatively small. In contrast, the model shows that uncertainty in ocean loss (17%of total) has the largest impact on modelled CCl4 decay due to its sizeable contribution to CCl4 loss and large lifetime uncertainty range (147 to 241 years). With an assumed CCl4 emission rate of 39 Gg year(exp -1), the reference simulation with the best estimate of loss processes still underestimates the observed CCl4 (overestimates the decay) over the past 2 decades but to a smaller extent than previous studies. Changes to the rate of CCl4 loss processes, in line with known uncertainties, could bring the model into agreement with in situ surface and remote-sensing measurements, as could an increase in emissions to around 47 Gg year(exp -1). Further progress in constraining the CCl4 budget is partly limited by systematic biases between observational datasets. For example, surface observations from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) network are larger than from the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) network but have shown a steeper decreasing trend over the past 2 decades. These differences imply a difference in emissions which is significant relative to uncertainties in the magnitudes of the CCl4 sinks.

Carbon Trechloride↗
NASA NTRS2014

Reconciliation of Halogen-Induced Ozone Loss with the Total-Column Ozone Record

The observed depletion of the ozone layer from the 1980s onwards is attributed to halogen source gases emitted by human activities. However, the precision of this attribution is complicated by year-to-year variations in meteorology, that is, dynamical variability, and by changes in tropospheric ozone concentrations. As such, key aspects of the total-column ozone record, which combines changes in both tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, remain unexplained, such as the apparent absence of a decline in total-column ozone levels before 1980, and of any long-term decline in total-column ozone levels in the tropics. Here we use a chemistry-climate model to estimate changes in halogen-induced ozone loss between 1960 and 2010; the model is constrained by observed meteorology to remove the eects of dynamical variability, and driven by emissions of tropospheric ozone precursors to separate out changes in tropospheric ozone. We show that halogen-induced ozone loss closely followed stratospheric halogen loading over the studied period. Pronounced enhancements in ozone loss were apparent in both hemispheres following the volcanic eruptions of El Chichon and, in particular, Mount Pinatubo, which significantly enhanced stratospheric aerosol loads. We further show that approximately 40% of the long-term non-volcanic ozone loss occurred before 1980, and that long-term ozone loss also occurred in the tropical stratosphere. Finally, we show that halogeninduced ozone loss has declined by over 10% since stratospheric halogen loading peaked in the late 1990s, indicating that the recovery of the ozone layer is well underway.

Shepherd, T. G.↗
NASA NTRS1973

Analysis of three-component aeromagnetic data

The numerical method of obtaining three field components from total field measurements, using double Fourier series expansion, is presented. The expressions for moments of the anomalous field components over a finite area are given. The magnitude and direction of the magnetization vector indicate that the vertical component of the magnetic field calculated from total field observations is more accurate at higher geomagnetic latitudes than at lower latitudes. The opposite is true for the horizontal components. The error in determining the magnetization vector directions are significantly large over most of the range of variation of declination and inclination of the vector, demonstrating the practical limitations of computing field components from total field data even under the best of conditions.

Bhattacharyya, B. K.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Correlation of solar irradiance and atmospheric temperature variations derived from spacecraft radiometry

Long-term changes in the mean global atmospheric temperature and the total solar irradiance were examined utilizing 1979-1989 spacecraft measurements. Outgoing longwave radiation at the top of the atmosphere was employed to infer global atmospheric temperatures. Evidence was determined that indicates the global temperatures should decline in the 1990-1997 period as the magnitude of the incoming solar irradiance declines with decreasing solar magnetic activity.

Lee, Robert B., III↗
NASA NTRS1997

Ground-Based GPS Sensing of Azimuthal Variations in Precipitable Water Vapor

Current models for troposphere delay employed by GPS software packages map the total zenith delay to the line-of-sight delay of the individual satellite-receiver link under the assumption of azimuthal homogeneity. This could be a poor approximation for many sites, in particular, those located at an ocean front or next to a mountain range. We have modified the GIPSY-OASIS II software package to include a simple non-symmetric mapping function (MacMillan, 1995) which introduces two new parameters.

azimuthal homogeneity zenith troposphere delay↗