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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 865 records · Page 48
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Irradiation and Decay Time on Chemical Speciation in Uranyl Sulfate Solution

A pH-1, 200-g U/L, highly enriched uranyl sulfate solution was neutron-irradiated using an accelerator-driven neutron source (the Universal Neutron Irradiator, UNI) to fission U-235 under conditions similar to those used by SHINE to produce Mo-99 in a subcritical assembly. We completed a series of five uranyl sulfate irradiations to assess the impact of irradiation and decay time on uranium precipitation and iodine speciation in solution. The duration of each irradiation was increased in order, with the shortest irradiation taking 2.9 hours and the longest, 64.5 hours. A total of 9.5E16 U-235 nuclei were fissioned in all irradiations, and a maximum fission power density of 0.26 W/mL was reached in the final irradiation. We observed no evidence of uranyl peroxide or other precipitates, demonstrating that the addition of Fe 2+ to a final Fe concentration of 200 ppm in the target solution was successful at preventing precipitation under representative irradiation conditions. Nonvolatile I - was found to be the dominant (>70%) iodine species in solution, both immediately after irradiation and after days to weeks of decay time.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2022

Remining and Restoring Abandoned US Mining Sites: The Case for Materials Needed for Zero-Carbon Transition

The electricity generation sector is responsible for 25% of the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and thus has been the focus of efforts to transition to clean energy and sustainable development in many nations. In the past 20 years, renewable energy sources have been the fastest-growing energy source in the world, comprising almost 29% of the world’s electricity generation in 2020. Renewable energy sources are expected to comprise nearly 95% of the world’s power capacity growth through 2026, with a share of planned capacity expansion of up to 46% in 2026. The rapid development of renewable energy sources and technologies will require an enormous amount of raw materials to replace coal and gas plants and increase in the capacity to handle growing electricity demand because renewable energy sources have a low-power density and intermittent behavior. Accounting for the expected scale of rapidly deploying renewable energy sources that require rare earth elements (REEs), cement, and steel, the mining industry may face a supply problem for the materials critical for clean energy. And, as the exploration and development of new mining sites can be expensive and risky, the mining industry may require economic stimuli to grow supply. The increasing demand for renewable energy resources makes mining a threat to the environment unless proper regulations are established and calls for remining, cleanup, and circular economic development are made. Mining also contributes to environmental injustices related to the exploitation and pollution of lands near communities that are dependent on biodiversity in the area, while not always benefiting from technological advancements provided by the use of renewable energy and technologies. This study explored the opportunity of remining abandoned mining waste to extract metals and minerals essential for the production of renewable energy sources. The authors analyzed materials used in the production of these technologies, materials readily available in the United States, and which materials can be extracted locally in the United States from abandoned mine waste. The authors also studied environmental injustices that populations near mining sites experience and ways to mitigate these injustices, such as providing more control over extraction and cleanup activities, providing more job opportunities in those areas, and offsetting costs associated with cleanup and land restoration projects.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Development of an Optimized Gasoline Surrogate Formulation for PACE Experiments and Simulations

New powertrain solutions are needed to address societal challenges stemming in part from a transportation sector which relies heavily on combustion of conventional hydrocarbon fuels like gasoline. One way to advance new solutions is through predictive simulations. Predictive simulations can potentially limit the extent of experimental validations, reduce time spent in engineering design cycles, unlock new strategies for high efficiency combustion with power density, and minimize tailpipe emissions. However, the simulation tools currently available are either too computationally expensive, inadequate in their accuracy, or a combination of the two. A DOE-funded consortium of national laboratories called the Partnership to Advance Combustion Engines (PACE) seeks to address this gap by rapidly delivering new knowledge and tools which enable market-competitive powertrain solutions for light-duty vehicles. Approaches to modeling combustion in powertrain systems typically incorporate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations with chemical kinetic models. These CFD simulations generally use surrogate fuels featuring a limited number of existing components in a reduced kinetic model to limit computational costs. Such surrogate fuels often sacrifice matching several or more combustion and physical properties of the target gasoline fuel. Validation of surrogate fuels is also often only pursued for a small subset of standard metrics such as research or motor octane number (RON, MON). The purpose of this project is to develop an optimal E10 gasoline surrogate fuel suitable for tasks across PACE to facilitate rapid common analysis and progression toward consortium goals. This project received contributions from tasks led by eight PACE principal investigators. The project funding here reflects all tasks under Pitz, whose tasks also contributed to additional PACE projects. Based on the optimal gasoline surrogate fuel composition, a reduced chemical kinetic model will be shared with PACE researchers, industry, and the broader combustion community.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Survey and Assessment of the Ocean Renewable Energy Resources in the US Gulf of Mexico

This study was conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM). It provides a comprehensive feasibility assessment of multiple offshore renewable energy technologies in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) to inform BOEM's strategic plans related to possible Outer Continental Shelf alternative energy leasing activities in the GoM. In coordination with Gulf Coast states, the study includes some information on offshore renewable energy potential in state waters for future energy planning. The goal of the study is to survey potential offshore renewable energy sources in the GoM and quantify their feasibility relating to resource adequacy, technology maturity, and the potential for competitive cost. The study provides a review of available technologies and concepts for generating offshore renewable energy, including a high-level assessment of the current state of each technology and its potential for future advances. It provides a breakdown of resource capacity for each renewable energy technology and a recommendation that offshore wind be pursued for future study as the most promising technology. The renewable technologies that were considered include offshore wind, wave energy, tidal energy, ocean current energy, offshore solar energy, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), cold water source cooling, and hydrogen (as a storage medium to utilize existing pipeline infrastructure). The resource capacity for each of these renewable energy sources was quantified for both the gross resource capacity potential (gross resource) and the technical resource capacity potential (technical resource) using the methodology described in an earlier NREL report. Many of these sources are very immature from a commercial perspective, which makes some of the comparisons difficult. In many cases, new methods were developed to estimate nominal power density for each technology type, which were necessary to convert the resource areas into deployable gross and technical resource capacity potentials.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Computational exploration of DIII-D QH-mode with extended MHD

This work will enable improved understanding of the scientific basis for DIII-D Quiescent H-mode (QH-mode) by leveraging recent computational developments of the NIMROD code. Experimentally, it is established that the QH-mode tokamak operation regime is free of edge-localized modes (ELMs) with good energy confinement. ELMs produce an impulsive heat-flux on the divertor that is unacceptable under burning-plasma conditions. Beyond DIII-D in future high-power-density tokamaks, accommodation of a high heat flux at the divertor represents a key challenge to overcome. Proposed solutions involve operation at high divertor density to achieve divertor detachment, operation with a liquid lithium wall and/or introduction of impurities to enhance radiative losses. Additionally, the first wall material is likely to be a high-Z material such as Tungsten in future devices as materials such as graphite tiles restrict the lifetime of the first wall due to a high erosion rate. While the atomic species composition of the plasma is known to impact the edge-pedestal structure and stability, the specifics of the underlying physics basis for this interaction is not firm. Studying this interaction is the goal of this proposal without focusing specifically on the fine details of the first wall and divertor solution. It is the goal is to lay the ground work to establish the compatibility of the divertor solutions and wall material with pedestal solutions that eliminate ELMs by leveraging present DIII-D experiments.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Survey of AC-LGADs for future 4D trackers with a proton beam

We will present the first beam test results with centimeter-scale AC-LGAD strip sensors, using the Fermilab Test Beam Facility, and a study of the performance of AC-LGAD sensors as a function of their thickness. Sensors of this type are envisioned for applications that require large-area precision 4D tracking coverage with economical channel counts, including timing layers for the Electron Ion Collider (EIC), and space-based particle experiments. Long strip sensors with sparse readout offer better cost and performance for applications where channel count or electrical power density is a constraint. Thanks to the excellent signal to noise ratio in AC-LGADs, sparse readout can be exploited without significant degradation of spatial or time resolution, which is demonstrated in our studies. A survey of sensor designs is presented, with the aim of optimizing the electrode geometry for spatial resolution and timing performance. We will present our studies of the sensor geometry optimizatio n to maintain the desirable sensor performance characteristics with increasingly larger electrodes.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Testing of Helium Cooled Metal Molybdenum Disk Target System

NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes LLC is planning to produce the important medical radioisotope molybdenum-99 (Mo-99) through a photonuclear reaction on molybdenum-100 (Mo-100). In this approach, multiple thin disks of enriched molybdenum metal will be bombarded with a 40-MeV electron beam. Because enriched Mo-100 is expensive, we intend to use as much beam power as possible to achieve maximum production yield and minimize the size of the target. This requirement leads to very high beam power density (heat deposition in the target), which sets challenging requirements for cooling. Together with scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory, a team at Argonne National Laboratory has developed and demonstrated a cooling approach using pressurized helium, which allows for efficient heat removal. One of the challenges in this approach is the management of the heat load on the target window. The target window separates the high-pressure helium atmosphere inside the target from the vacuum in the beamline, so it is constantly under stress from differential pressure. Also, the window is cooled only by the helium gas flow from one side, making the window design challenging. High heat deposition in the target disks also imposes a strict requirement on performance of the helium cooling system and thickness of the target disks. The target disks are produced from metal powder via a press-and-sinter process. The resulting disks do not possess as high a tensile strength as solid molybdenum and might not survive the vibration from the high-velocity helium coolant and the high thermal stress from beam heating.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

First survey of centimeter-scale AC-LGAD strip sensors with a 120 GeV proton beam

We will present the first beam test results with centimeter-scale AC-LGAD strip sensors, using the Fermilab Test Beam Facility, and a study of the performance of AC-LGAD sensors as a function of their thickness. Sensors of this type are envisioned for applications that require large-area precision 4D tracking coverage with economical channel counts, including timing layers for the Electron Ion Collider (EIC), and space-based particle experiments. Long strip sensors with sparse readout offer better cost and performance for applications where channel count or electrical power density is a constraint. Thanks to the excellent signal to noise ratio in AC-LGADs, sparse readout can be exploited without significant degradation of spatial or time resolution, which is demonstrated in our studies. A survey of sensor designs is presented, with the aim of optimizing the electrode geometry for spatial resolution and timing performance. We will present our studies of the sensor geometry optimization to maintain the desirable sensor performance characteristics with increasingly larger electrodes.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Simulations Supporting the Development of Northstar's Indirect Beam Parameters Monitoring System

NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes, LLC is planning to produce the important medical radioisotope molybdenum-99 (Mo-99), the parent of technetium-99m (Tc-99m), through photonuclear reactions in molybdenum-100 (Mo-100). In this approach, a target comprising multiple thin disks of enriched molybdenum metal is bombarded with a 40-MeV electron beam. Electrons impinged on the molybdenum target produce bremsstrahlung X-rays that cause the nuclear reaction. Because enriched Mo-100 is expensive, there is a desire to utilize as much beam power as possible to achieve maximum production yield and minimize the size of the target. This requirement leads to very high beam power density (and heat deposition in the target), which creates challenging requirements for the cooling of the target. The critical part of the target is the target window. It separates the high-pressure helium cooled target from the vacuum beamline and the subject of structural and thermal stress. The temperature of the target window is proportional to the energy density deposited by the beam, so it is critical to maintain the desired beam profile on the target window. The feasibility of indirectly monitoring the maximum energy density of the beam on the beam window through beam losses at the main collimator (Collimator) before the production target was verified. A model of the NorthStar beam transport line was constructed for this purpose using MAD-X and Tao/Bmad codes. Beam optics were computed for the standard operational scenario, followed by an investigation involving approximately 400 cases with parameter variations in the last tuning quadrupoles. This was done to assess the correlation between losses in the collimator and the peak energy density on the target. We developed a model to explore the potential application of Optical transition radiation (OTR) for controlling beam parameters in the NorthStar beam delivery system. This model was based on a generic formula derived from the fundamental solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation of the vector potential, and allowed us to consider various surfaces, even those with irregular or random features, using numerical integration. We applied the model to OTR generated by relativistic electrons impacting an Inconel® 718 beam window. We examined cases with different levels of the window’s surface roughness, ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 microns of root square mean (RMS) deviation. The results of the OTR simulations provided distributions of OTR photons that can be used to study the limitations of optical systems for controlling beam parameters.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development of 3D Printing Techniques for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: Energy Storage Internship (Final Report)

The goal of this internship was to develop a solid polymer electrolyte with a suitable ionic conductivity and mechanical properties and integrate it with 3D printed cathode for solid state lithium batteries. While liquid electrolytes will have much higher conductivities and therefore higher power densities than solid electrolytes, batteries with such electrolytes suffer from extreme dendritic growth, short-circuiting, and general failure. Typically, batteries prevent this by including a solid yet porous separator somewhere between the anode and cathode to suppress dendritic growth. Solid polymer electrolyte acts as the conductive medium between electrodes as well as the separator that prevents failure from short-circuiting. The specific system explored is a vinyl ethylene carbonate (VEC) and polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) mixed polymer solution using both 2,2’-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) and Irgacure 819, respectively as thermal and photo- initiators. Electrochemical and rheological techniques were used to determine the optimal polymer solution and curing conditions. Through this research, multiple new pathways of exploration have been determined to create a usable solid polymer electrolyte through a combination of varying cure intensities and initiator concentrations.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Universal Battery Supercharger

During the course of the UBS project a dc-fast charger was developed to be used in off board high power charging stations. High efficiency is targeted to reduce the charging price for the consumer while reducing the charge time. In the meantime, the size of the converter is minimized so that it could be used in small spaces and potentially urban areas. The topology is modular, and the power level can be expanded for charging higher power vehicles like trucks and buses. During the course of this research several key technologies was developed in LESES that improve the performance of the power electronics system used in EV charger. Integrated magnetics was developed for DMCR to improve the power density as well as efficiency of the magnetic components which is one of the main bottlenecks of EV development. Triangular mode EV current conduction mode is using to perform soft switching (increase efficiency) without adding any new components to the existing topology. Passive and active damping are developed to suppress the interaction between grid and converter, stabilizing the control system. Further numerous other technical problems have been solved to pave the way for even higher performance converters in the future.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transition Metal Blocking Microporous Polymer Separators for Energy-Dense and Long-Lived Li-ion Batteries

A revolution in electric-powered mobility is imminent, catalyzed by breakthroughs in Li-ion battery technology that have dramatically lowered the $/kWh price tag of electrochemical energy storage. Increases in production have also enabled greater penetration in key markets. World-wide registration of new plug-in hybrid electric and battery-only electric vehicles (PHEV and BEV) increased by 70% from 2014 to 2015, and sales of PHEVs and BEVs are predicted to be 35% of all vehicle sales by 2040, reaching 41 million units per year—a 90-fold increase from 2015.1,2 In stride with industry giants such as Tesla, EV manufacturers rely on Li-ion cell Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) for relentless improvements in Li-ion battery technology necessary to drive this bullish market penetration outlook. Advancing energy and power density is critical to alleviating EV-customer range anxiety. Furthermore, strategies to extend battery-pack life beyond 1000 cycles—particularly when operating under aggressive duty cycles—requires fresh perspectives and innovation in cell components.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Testing of Helium-Cooled Metal Molybdenum Disk Target

NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes LLC is planning to produce an important medical radioisotope, molybdenum-99 (Mo-99), through photonuclear reaction on molybdenum-100 (Mo-100). In this approach, molybdenum metal will be bombarded with a 40-MeV electron beam. Because enriched Mo-100 is expensive, it is desired to use as much beam power as possible to achieve maximum production yield and minimize target mass. This objective leads to very high beam power density (heat deposition in the target), which sets challenging requirements for cooling. Together with scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory, a team at Argonne National Laboratory has developed and demonstrated a cooling approach using pressurized helium, which allows for efficient heat removal. One of the main challenges in this approach is the management of the heat load on the target window. The target window separates the high-pressure helium inside the target from the vacuum in the beamline, so it is constantly under stress from differential pressure. Also, the window is cooled only by the helium gas flowing on one side, making the window cooling even more challenging. High heat deposition in the target disks also imposes a strict requirement on performance of the helium cooling system and thickness of the target disks. The target disks are produced from metal powder via a press-and-sinter process. The resulting disks do not possess tensile strength as high as solid molybdenum and might not survive the vibration from the high-velocity helium coolant and high thermal stress from beam heating. An Argonne team of scientists performed a series of tests at Argonne’s Low Energy Accelerator Facility (LEAF) [3-7]. This report describes two series of tests for scale down production target designs that utilize full-scale 29 millimeters diameter, 0.75 mm thick press-and-sintered disks. We performed two thermal tests with different beam parameters and configurations of the disk laminations. We compared the results of the window temperature measurements and cooling system parameters obtained in the experiments with those predicted by analytical calculations and Computation Flow Dynamic (CFD) simulations. Results of the experiments and calculations are presented below.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

NASA: Structure and Thermophysical Properties of Delta and Epsilon Zry4H x

Small-modular and micro-reactors are part of an emerging nuclear technology aimed to provide power to decentralized grids in civilian, industrial, and defense energy sectors. Resurgence in microreactor research is partly driven by demands for a mobile, safe, and compact energy platform for remote and strategic locations. The defining characteristics of the microreactor include its high-power density on a small footprint, its highly transportable design, and the use of high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU) fuel. Solid-state metal hydride neutron moderator components are considered for microreactor designs where the moderator functions to thermalize neutrons into lower energies for the fuel to achieve high fission rates. Zirconium hydride (ZrH x where x denotes the atomic hydrogen-to-metal ratio) is a leading moderator candidate material due to the combination of its low neutron absorption cross section, irradiation resistance, high hydrogen atomic density (upwards of 7.5 x 10 22 H atoms/cm 3 at low temperatures), and high hydrogen desorption (dissociation) temperature around 600 °C (873 K) compared to other metal hydrides. Its high-temperature stability enables operation of fuel temperatures into several hundred degrees Celsius for overall increased efficiency.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Pebble-Bed Reactors Running In And Transient Modeling Capabilities Demonstration

This study presents a comprehensive benchmarking and verification effort of several thermal-hydraulic and multiphysics capabilities for high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) applications. The first part of this effort focuses on the running-in verification of Griffin's multiphysics capabilities, specifically for simulating the evolution of Pebble Bed reactor cores from startup to equilibrium. In the absence of validation data, code-to-code comparisons are conducted with Kugelpy, showing good agreement for key quantities like maximum power density and fresh core k-eigenvalue predictions. However, discrepancies in equilibrium core predictions suggest potential issues with cross sections, underscoring the need for further refinement and evaluation. The HTTF system analysis code benchmark involves RELAP5-3D, SAM, and GAMMA+ to assess their predictive capabilities for HTTF behavior under both normal operation and pressurized conduction cooldown (PCC) transient conditions. While there is good agreement in predicting major parameters such as coolant temperature, solid temperature, and flow distribution, discrepancies in transient behavior highlight differences in modeling approaches, nodalizations, and heat transfer models. The HTTF lower plenum CFD benchmark employs nekRS to simulate flow mixing phenomena, successfully capturing relevant flow physics and demonstrating mesh independence in complex geometries. Preliminary results suggest a relatively uniform temperature field but significant unsteadiness in the flow, requiring time-averaging analyses. The GPBR200 system analysis code benchmark uses SAM's core channel and porous media models, incorporating an RCCS loop for decay heat removal. During steady-state and transient conditions, including protected de-pressurized and pressurized loss of forced cooling (DLOFC and PLOFC), both models show good agreement in predicting temperature profiles and key parameters. Notably, while the core channel model underpredicts convective heat transfer effects, both models maintain temperatures well below the TRISO fuel safety limit. These benchmarking efforts collectively enhance the predictive capabilities of the tools used in HTGR design and safety analysis, guiding developments to improve their accuracy and applicability.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Improving Efficiency of Off-Road Vehicles by Novel Integration of Electric Machines and Advanced Combustion Engines

Modern off-road equipment will increasingly rely on electrified implements that will deliver precision control with a smaller footprint than hydraulics. The primary energy converter, however, will be an onboard reciprocating internal combustion engine because of the power density of hydrocarbon fuels in comparison to electrical energy storage and the remote locations where much of this equipment is deployed. Adding energy storage and electric machines creates opportunities to improve efficiency while reducing emissions. This program investigated approaches to take advantage of the extra flexibility that an enhanced electrical system to enable high-efficiency, low-emissions combustion technologies. The current program evaluated hybridization of both the torque application and air-handling systems to maximize efficiency while minimizing cost. This program designed, analyzed and tested a hybrid off-road vehicle consisting of a series electric powertrain with energy storage, an electrified air system, and a 33% downsized diesel engine. Detailed comparisons were made between the base powertrain and the developed powertrain using powertrain simulations, engine testing, and vehicle testing. The key results of the study are: • The resulting vehicle reduces fuel consumption by 5% to 15% at equal productivity. The primary improvements were due to recovery of regenerative braking losses for cycles where large transients are encountered. • The electrified air system was an enabler to allow engine downsizing. This was most important for duty-cycles where the engine primarily operated at moderate loads and had few low speed high torque conditions. • Engine level improvements showed re-optimization of the powertrain is possible when electrified air handing is available. Increased exhaust gas recirculation and advanced injection timing allowed up to a 15% reduction in brake specific fuel consumption at equal NOx and transient response. Compared to the larger engine, the downsized engine achieves up to an 18% reduction in brake specific fuel consumption over the non-road transient cycle. • The life cycle analysis and total cost of ownership study showed that the hybrid powertrain has the potential to reduce 5-year CO2 and total cost of ownership by ~6% over the baseline vehicle. The results also indicated that a pure battery electric vehicle is not feasible in this application and is likely to increase the CO2 emissions due to the CO2 from battery production. A hybrid powertrain with low carbon fuels shows the potential to substantially reduce CO2 and total cost of ownership.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2024

Upcycling Polyethylene Waste to Advanced Carbon Materials for Energy Storage Applications

Polyethylene is notoriously difficult to upcycle because it decomposes into light gases at approximately 350-400 °C which prevents processing it at higher temperatures to convert it into high-value carbon materials, such as graphene or graphite. We address this challenge by using an air-based, thermo-oxidation process, which heats polyethylene (PE) just below the decomposition point to initiate oxidation and cross-linking of PE alkyl chains. These molecular transformations allow PE to be further graphenized or graphitized at higher temperatures without decomposing. The PE-derived graphene has a specific surface area up to 1,800 m 2/g and Raman ID/IG ratio of 0.85, which enables it to be used as an electrode material for a symmetric supercapacitor with the 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte. The PE-derived graphene material has a comparable electrochemical capacitive performance, such as power density, specific capacitance, and long cycle stability, to the commercial state of art porous carbon electrode. The stabilized PE could also be converted into highly crystalline flake graphite via low-temperature catalytic graphitization. The PE-derived graphite is used for the lithium-ion battery anode, which showed comparable electrochemical battery performance, such as reversible rate performance and long-term cyclic stability, to the current use battery-grade graphite, thus providing a scalable method to upcycle PE plastic waste into high-value carbon material.

Gao, Yuan↗