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NASA NTRS1989

Unified micromechanics of damping for unidirectional fiber reinforced composites

An integrated micromechanics methodology for the prediction of damping capacity in fiber-reinforced polymer matrix unidirectional composites has been developed. Explicit micromechanics equations based on hysteretic damping are presented relating the on-axis damping capacities to the fiber and matrix properties and volume fraction. The damping capacities of unidirectional composites subjected to off-axis loading are synthesized from thermal effect on the damping performance of unidirectional composites due to temperature and moisture variations is also modeled. The damping contributions from interfacial friction between broken fibers and matrix are incorporated. Finally, the temperature rise in continuously vibrating composite plies is estimated. Application examples illustrate the significance of various parameters on the damping performance of unidirectional and off-axis fiber reinforced composites.

Saravanos, D. A.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Effect of atmospherics on beamforming accuracy

Two mathematical representations of noise due to atmospheric turbulence are presented. These representations are derived and used in computer simulations of the Bartlett Estimate implementation of beamforming. Beamforming is an array processing technique employing an array of acoustic sensors used to determine the bearing of an acoustic source. Atmospheric wind conditions introduce noise into the beamformer output. Consequently, the accuracy of the process is degraded and the bearing of the acoustic source is falsely indicated or impossible to determine. The two representations of noise presented here are intended to quantify the effects of mean wind passing over the array of sensors and to correct for these effects. The first noise model is an idealized case. The effect of the mean wind is incorporated as a change in the propagation velocity of the acoustic wave. This yields an effective phase shift applied to each term of the spatial correlation matrix in the Bartlett Estimate. The resultant error caused by this model can be corrected in closed form in the beamforming algorithm. The second noise model acts to change the true direction of propagation at the beginning of the beamforming process. A closed form correction for this model is not available. Efforts to derive effective means to reduce the contributions of the noise have not been successful. In either case, the maximum error introduced by the wind is a beam shift of approximately three degrees. That is, the bearing of the acoustic source is indicated at a point a few degrees from the true bearing location. These effects are not quite as pronounced as those seen in experimental results. Sidelobes are false indications of acoustic sources in the beamformer output away from the true bearing angle. The sidelobes that are observed in experimental results are not caused by these noise models. The effects of mean wind passing over the sensor array as modeled here do not alter the beamformer output as significantly as expected.

Alexander, Richard M.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Long-Term Durability of a Matrix for High-Temperature Composites Predicted

Polymer matrix composites (PMC's) are being increasingly used in applications where they are exposed for long durations to harsh environments such as elevated temperatures, moisture, oils and solvents, and thermal cycling. The exposure to these environments leads to the degradation of structures made from these materials. This also affects the useful lifetimes of these structures. Some of the more prominent aerospace applications of polymer matrix composites include engine supports and cowlings, reusable launch vehicle parts, radomes, thrust-vectoring flaps, and the thermal insulation of rocket motors. This demand has led to efforts to develop lightweight, high-strength, high-modulus materials that have upper-use temperatures over 316 C. A cooperative program involving two grants to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in-house work at the NASA Glenn Research Center was conducted to identify the mechanisms and the measurement of mechanical and physical properties that are necessary to formulate a mechanism-based model for predicting the lifetime of high-temperature polymer matrix composites. The polymer that was studied was PMR-15 polyimide, a leading matrix resin for use in high-temperature-resistant aerospace composite structures such as propulsion systems. The temperature range that was studied was from 125 to 316 C. The diffusion behavior of PMR-15 neat resin was characterized and modeled. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was also conducted in nitrogen, oxygen, and air to provide quantitative information on thermal and oxidative degradation reactions. A new low-cost technique was developed to collect chemical degradation data for isothermal tests lasting up to 4000 hr in duration. In the temperature range studied, results indicate complex behavior that was not observed by previous TGA tests, including the presence of weight-gain reactions. These were found to be significant in the initial periods of aging from 125 to 225 C. Two types of weight loss reactions dominated at aging temperatures above 225 C. One was concentrated at the surface of the polymer and was very active at temperatures above 225 C. The second was observed to dominate in the latter stages of aging at temperatures below 260 C. This three-reaction model satisfactorily explains past findings that the degradation mechanism of PMR-15 appears to change around 316 C. It also indicates that the second weight gain mechanism is a significant factor at temperatures below 204 C. On the basis of these results, a predictive model was developed for the thermal degradation of PMR-15 at 316 C. A comparison of data generated by this model with actual experimental data is shown in the following figure.

Bowles, Kenneth J.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Statistical analysis of effective singular values in matrix rank determination

A major problem in using SVD (singular-value decomposition) as a tool in determining the effective rank of a perturbed matrix is that of distinguishing between significantly small and significantly large singular values to the end, conference regions are derived for the perturbed singular values of matrices with noisy observation data. The analysis is based on the theories of perturbations of singular values and statistical significance test. Threshold bounds for perturbation due to finite-precision and i.i.d. random models are evaluated. In random models, the threshold bounds depend on the dimension of the matrix, the noisy variance, and predefined statistical level of significance. Results applied to the problem of determining the effective order of a linear autoregressive system from the approximate rank of a sample autocorrelation matrix are considered. Various numerical examples illustrating the usefulness of these bounds and comparisons to other previously known approaches are given.

Konstantinides, Konstantinos↗

NASA NTRS1996

Perceptually Lossless Wavelet Compression

The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) decomposes an image into bands that vary in spatial frequency and orientation. It is widely used for image compression. Measures of the visibility of DWT quantization errors are required to achieve optimal compression. Uniform quantization of a single band of coefficients results in an artifact that is the sum of a lattice of random amplitude basis functions of the corresponding DWT synthesis filter, which we call DWT uniform quantization noise. We measured visual detection thresholds for samples of DWT uniform quantization noise in Y, Cb, and Cr color channels. The spatial frequency of a wavelet is r 2(exp -1), where r is display visual resolution in pixels/degree, and L is the wavelet level. Amplitude thresholds increase rapidly with spatial frequency. Thresholds also increase from Y to Cr to Cb, and with orientation from low-pass to horizontal/vertical to diagonal. We propose a mathematical model for DWT noise detection thresholds that is a function of level, orientation, and display visual resolution. This allows calculation of a 'perceptually lossless' quantization matrix for which all errors are in theory below the visual threshold. The model may also be used as the basis for adaptive quantization schemes.

Watson, Andrew B.↗

NASA NTRS1995

Visibility of Wavelet Quantization Noise

The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) decomposes an image into bands that vary in spatial frequency and orientation. It is widely used for image compression. Measures of the visibility of DWT quantization errors are required to achieve optimal compression. Uniform quantization of a single band of coefficients results in an artifact that is the sum of a lattice of random amplitude basis functions of the corresponding DWT synthesis filter, which we call DWT uniform quantization noise. We measured visual detection thresholds for samples of DWT uniform quantization noise in Y, Cb, and Cr color channels. The spatial frequency of a wavelet is r 2(exp)-L , where r is display visual resolution in pixels/degree, and L is the wavelet level. Amplitude thresholds increase rapidly with spatial frequency. Thresholds also increase from Y to Cr to Cb, and with orientation from low-pass to horizontal/vertical to diagonal. We describe a mathematical model to predict DWT noise detection thresholds as a function of level, orientation, and display visual resolution. This allows calculation of a "perceptually lossless" quantization matrix for which all errors are in theory below the visual threshold. The model may also be used as the basis for adaptive quantization schemes.

Watson, Andrew B.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Visibility of wavelet quantization noise

The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) decomposes an image into bands that vary in spatial frequency and orientation. It is widely used for image compression. Measures of the visibility of DWT quantization errors are required to achieve optimal compression. Uniform quantization of a single band of coefficients results in an artifact that we call DWT uniform quantization noise; it is the sum of a lattice of random amplitude basis functions of the corresponding DWT synthesis filter. We measured visual detection thresholds for samples of DWT uniform quantization noise in Y, Cb, and Cr color channels. The spatial frequency of a wavelet is r 2-lambda, where r is display visual resolution in pixels/degree, and lambda is the wavelet level. Thresholds increase rapidly with wavelet spatial frequency. Thresholds also increase from Y to Cr to Cb, and with orientation from lowpass to horizontal/vertical to diagonal. We construct a mathematical model for DWT noise detection thresholds that is a function of level, orientation, and display visual resolution. This allows calculation of a "perceptually lossless" quantization matrix for which all errors are in theory below the visual threshold. The model may also be used as the basis for adaptive quantization schemes.

NASA Center ARC↗

NASA NTRS2016

Computational Evaluation of Inlet Distortion on an Ejector Powered Hybrid Wing Body at Takeoff and Landing Conditions

Due to the aft, upper surface engine location on the Hybrid Wing Body (HWB) planform, there is potential to shed vorticity and separated wakes into the engine when the vehicle is operated at off-design conditions and corners of the envelope required for engine and airplane certification. CFD simulations were performed of the full-scale reference propulsion system, operating at a range of inlet flow rates, flight speeds, altitudes, angles of attack, and angles of sideslip to identify the conditions which produce the largest distortion and lowest pressure recovery. Pretest CFD was performed by NASA and Boeing, using multiple CFD codes, with various turbulence models. These data were used to make decisions regarding model integration, characterize inlet flow distortion patterns, and help define the wind tunnel test matrix. CFD was also performed post-test; when compared with test data, it was possible to make comparisons between measured model-scale and predicted full-scale distortion levels. This paper summarizes these CFD analyses.

Wind Tunnel Testing↗

NASA NTRS1985

A comparison of measured and calculated thermal stresses in a hybrid metal matrix composite spar cap element

A hybrid spar of titanium with an integrally brazed composite, consisting of an aluminum matrix reinforced with boron-carbide-coated fibers, was heated in an oven and the resulting thermal stresses were measured. Uniform heating of the spar in an oven resulted in thermal stresses arising from the effects of dissimilar materials and anisotropy of the metal matrix composite. Thermal stresses were calculated from a finite element structural model using anisotropic material properties deduced from constituent properties and rules of mixtures. Comparisons of calculated thermal stresses with measured thermal stresses on the spar are presented. It was shown that failure to account for anisotropy in the metal matrix composite elements would result in large errors in correlating measured and calculated thermal stresses. It was concluded that very strong material characterization efforts are required to predict accurate thermal stresses in anisotropic composite structures.

Jenkins, J. M.↗

NASA NTRS1981

SPAR analysis of LDEF vibration characteristics

This paper presents a structural dynamic modeling of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), which is a Space Shuttle payload of passive scientific experiments contained in trays mounted on a large cylindrically shaped structure. Special detailed finite element modeling, using the SPAR system of computer programs was required to obtain good agreement between analytical and test vibrations modes. Experimental trays contributed significantly to overall LDEF stiffnesses, and these contributions were realistically represented for each tray by the stiffness matrix of an equivalent orthotropic panel in the overall LDEF SPAR model. Orthotropic stiffnesses for this panel were obtained from finely detailed statically loaded tray SPAR models in which stiffness coupling was accounted for along with partial relative sliding allowed by the tray clamping attachments. Joint boundary conditions were also significant in the structural dynamic modeling of LDEF, and static data proved valuable in assessing modeling of local end fittings.

Edighoffer, H. H.↗

NASA NTRS1993

An overview of elevated temperature damage mechanisms and fatigue behavior of a unidirectional SCS-6/Ti-15-3 composite

The fatigue behavior of a unidirectionally reinforced titanium matrix composite (TMC), SiC/Ti-15-3, was thoroughly characterized to support life prediction modeling of advanced TMC disks designed for gas turbine engine applications. The results of this coupon-level experimental investigation are reviewed. On a stress basis, the isothermal fatigue behavior of the (0 deg) TMC revealed significant improvements over the unreinforced matrix. In contrast, the (90 deg) TMC exhibited degraded properties and lives for similar comparisons. This was attributed to the weak fiber/matrix interfacial bond. Encasing the (0 deg) TMC with a Ti-15-3 case did not affect isothermal fatigue lives at higher strain levels. However, at lower strain levels, rapid initiation and propagation of large fatigue cracks in the case degraded the fatigue lives. Thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) lives were significantly reduced for the (0 deg) TMC when compared to isothermal lives. At high strains, in-phase TMF produced extremely short lives. This degradation was attributed to fiber overload failures brought about by stress relaxation in the matrix. At low strains, out-of-phase TMF conditions became life limiting. Environment-assisted surface cracking was found to accelerate fatigue failure. This produced extensive matrix damage with minimal fiber damage. For the (90 deg) TMC, TMF conditions did not promote an additional degradation in cyclic life beyond that observed under isothermal conditions.

Castelli, Michael G.↗

NASA NTRS1995

Experimental Verification of a Progressive Damage Model for IM7/5260 Laminates Subjected to Tension-Tension Fatigue

The durability and damage tolerance of laminated composites are critical design considerations for airframe composite structures. Therefore, the ability to model damage initiation and growth and predict the life of laminated composites is necessary to achieve structurally efficient and economical designs. The purpose of this research is to experimentally verify the application of a continuum damage model to predict progressive damage development in a toughened material system. Damage due to monotonic and tension-tension fatigue was documented for IM7/5260 graphite/bismaleimide laminates. Crack density and delamination surface area were used to calculate matrix cracking and delamination internal state variables to predict stiffness loss in unnotched laminates. A damage dependent finite element code predicted the stiffness loss for notched laminates with good agreement to experimental data. It was concluded that the continuum damage model can adequately predict matrix damage progression in notched and unnotched laminates as a function of loading history and laminate stacking sequence.

Coats, Timothy W.↗

NASA NTRS1990

On central-difference and upwind schemes

A class of numerical dissipation models for central-difference schemes constructed with second- and fourth-difference terms is considered. The notion of matrix dissipation associated with upwind schemes is used to establish improved shock capturing capability for these models. In addition, conditions are given that guarantee that such dissipation models produce a Total Variation Diminishing (TVD) scheme. Appropriate switches for this type of model to ensure satisfaction of the TVD property are presented. Significant improvements in the accuracy of a central-difference scheme are demonstrated by computing both inviscid and viscous transonic airfoil flows.

Swanson, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS1992

On central-difference and upwind schemes

Swanson, R. C.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

New Developments in the CompDam Fiber Kinking Model for the Interaction

This paper describes two new additions to the CompDam fiber kinking model: 1) a failure index for fiber kinking to facilitate interaction between kinking and matrix cracking and 2) a strain-based criterion for fiber rupture to account for fiber breakage before or after fiber kinking. The model formulation is described with the aid of the graphical Considère construction, which is used to determine the conditions for fiber kinking. Verification studies are conducted with single element models to show the behavior of the model in light of the new developments and to evaluate the effect of numerical parameters of the model. The model is used to analyze open hole compression (OHC) specimens with soft, quasi-isotropic, and hard layups. Analysis results are shown for a conventional continuum damage mechanics model using a trilinear constitutive law for fiber damage and for the proposed model to highlight the differences between the two. Comparison with test data highlights the capabilities and remaining gaps in the quantitative prediction of the damage and failure response. While both models can predict many features of the OHC response, accurate prediction of kinking onset in the OHC specimens remains elusive. The results suggest that it is necessary to predict the combined effects of compression and shear loading as well as the structural effects (e.g., ply thickness, strain gradient effect) accurately to match the experimental observations of fiber kinking onset in the three OHC laminates.

Andrew C. Bergan↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Modeling the Stochastic Response of Fiber Reinforced Composites with Varied Representative Volume Element Sizes

Fiber reinforced composites are desirable in applications where low weight and high strength are needed, but are susceptible to variability and flaws during manufacturing, making failure predictions difficult. These flaws may occur at the microscale where mechanical properties vary locally due to regions of fiber clusters and matrix pockets. In this study, a multiscale approach was taken to model 3-point bend, 4-point bend, and tensile experiments of a unidirectional composite from only having microstructure scans of these samples and constituent properties from literature. These scans were sampled with different sized windows, and statistically equivalent microstructures were generated, then simulated for stiffness, strength, and fracture toughness using a reduced order micromechanical model and NASA’s Multiscale Analysis Tool (NASMAT). Mesoscale models were created with equivalent element sizes to microstructures and properties sampled from microscale simulation results. Results showed how microscale size affects certain mechanical properties. Also shown is how well mesoscale models agree to experiments when using stochastic element properties and varying element size.

microstructure↗

NASA NTRS1980

Optimal control model predictions of system performance and attention allocation and their experimental validation in a display design study

The influence of different types of predictor displays in a longitudinal vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) hover task is analyzed in a theoretical study. Several cases with differing amounts of predictive and rate information are compared. The optimal control model of the human operator is used to estimate human and system performance in terms of root-mean-square (rms) values and to compute optimized attention allocation. The only part of the model which is varied to predict these data is the observation matrix. Typical cases are selected for a subsequent experimental validation. The rms values as well as eye-movement data are recorded. The results agree favorably with those of the theoretical study in terms of relative differences. Better matching is achieved by revised model input data.

Johannsen, G.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Advanced Ceramic Matrix Composites: Science and Technology of Materials, Design, Applications, Performance and Integration

Overview of NASA Transformational Tools and Technologies Project's 2700F CMC/EBC Technology Challenge J. Hurst, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH USA Key Words: ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), SiC/SiC composites, environmental barrier coatings (EBCs), CMC modeling, simulated engine testing As advanced gas turbine engine designs continue to move toward both higher operating temperatures and increased pressures, materials capable of functioning under these extreme conditions are being sought by both government and industry. As part of its mission, the NASA's Transformational Tools and Technologies Project, under the auspices of NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, has been pursuing a five year Technology Challenge problem. This challenge problem has sought to develop high temperature materials for turbine engines that enable a 6% reduction in fuel burn for commercial aircraft, compared to current SOA materials. Specifically this is accomplished by the development and demonstration of a ceramic matrix composite (CMC) and environmental barrier coating (EBC) system capable of sustained performance at temperature of 2700F. The NASA Glenn Research Center has continued its two decade long interest in CMC/EBCs technology by pursuing this 2700F performance goal. This ambitious effort included an array of vendors, universities and engine companies. Included in this challenge was fiber development, fiber architecture considerations, ceramic matrix composition, environmental barrier compositions and processing routes as well as test development. Evaluation of the CMC/EBC materials included a variety of testing, from coupon testing for strength and creep resistance, to testing aimed at determining material behavior under more engine-like conditions. The development and validation of thermomechanical models and computational tools for design, analysis, and life prediction, have been an important part of this effort as well. Simulated engine testing of vane subcomponents by P&W was the final step following years of development. In addition to achieving the temperature goals and enhanced durability performance of the Tech Challenge, an additional goal achieved by this work was reaching a Technology Readiness Level of 5 for the 3-D CMC/EBC system. As this five year Technical Challenge comes to a conclusion, future development interests in environmental barrier coatings and environmental modeling are discussed.

SiC/SiC composites↗