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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 865 records · Page 48
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Fluctuating pH for efficient photomixotrophic succinate production

Cyanobacteria are attracting increasing attention as a photosynthetic chassis organism for diverse biochemical production, however, photoautotrophic production remains inefficient. Photomixotrophy, a method where sugar is used to supplement baseline autotrophic metabolism in photosynthetic hosts, is becoming increasingly popular for enhancing sustainable bioproduction with multiple input energy streams. In this study, the commercially relevant diacid, succinate, was produced photomixotrophically. Succinate is an important industrial chemical that can be used for the production of a wide array of products, from pharmaceuticals to biopolymers. In this system, the substrate, glucose, is transported by a proton symporter and the product, succinate, is hypothesized to be transported by another proton symporter, but in the opposite direction. Thus, low pH is required for the import of glucose and high pH is required for the export of succinate. Succinate production was initiated in a pH 7 medium containing bicarbonate. Glucose was efficiently imported at around neutral pH. Utilization of bicarbonate by CO 2 fixation raised the pH of the medium. As succinate, a diacid, was produced, the pH of the medium dropped. By repeating this cycle with additional pH adjustment, those contradictory requirements for transport were overcome. pH affects a variety of biological factors and by cycling from high pH to neutral pH processes such as CO 2 fixation rates and CO 2 solubility can vary. In this study the engineered strains produced succinate during fluctuating pH conditions, achieving a titer of 5.0gL -1 after 10 days under shake flask conditions. Finally, these results demonstrate the potential for photomixotrophic production as a viable option for the large-scale production of succinate.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Insights into the Cathode–Electrolyte Interphases of High-Energy-Density Cathodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Here we present a comprehensive study of cycled high-Ni (LiNi 1–x M x O 2 , M = metals), Li-rich (Li 1+x Mn y M 1–x–y O 2 ), and high-voltage spinel (LiMn 1.5 Ni 0.5 O 4 ) electrodes with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy in conjunction with electrochemical techniques to better understand their evolving cathode–electrolyte interphase structure during cycling. TOF-SIMS provides fragment-specific information regarding the surface film content for each of the electrodes. High-Ni cathodes show thick surface films initially containing Li 2 CO 3 , later developing oxidized organic carbonates throughout cycling. Li-rich electrode surface films develop strong characteristics during their first activation cycles, where released O 2 oxidizes organic carbonates to form polymeric carbons and decomposes LiPF 6 . High-voltage spinel electrodes operate outside the standard electrolyte stability window, generating reactive oxidized electrolyte species that further decompose LiPF 6 . The distribution and concentration of these different chemical fragments measured by TOF-SIMS are finally summarized by color-coded high-resolution images of cycled high-Ni, Li-rich, and high-voltage spinel electrodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Scalable open-air deposition of compact ETL TiO x on perovskite for fullerene-free solar cells

We report a scalable, low-temperature TiO x electron transport layer (ETL) produced directly on top of perovskite in an inverted architecture device by an open-air chemical vapor deposition (OA-CVD) process. The OA-CVD pyrolysis of a titanium ethoxide precursor forms a fully inorganic, conformal, and compact TiO x film. The resultant film is mechanically robust and exhibits a fracture toughness 30-fold higher than commonly used fullerene-based ETL films. The TiO x is an effective barrier layer against environmental degradation—unencapsulated devices with the TiO x ETL retain 60% of their initial efficiency after 1000 hours in ambient aging conditions—compared to devices with a fullerene ETL which were inoperable after 144 hours. Inverted architecture devices with an optimized TiO x ETL thickness of 70 nm exhibited high open-circuit voltages of 1.08 V. We comment on the photocatalytic properties of TiO x and the influence of an amorphous film on maximum power point stability.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

EC-Bench: A Benchmark for Enzyme Commission Number Prediction

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific biochemical reactions in cells. Enzyme Commission (EC) numbers are used to annotate enzymes in a four-level hierarchy that classifies enzymes based on the specific chemical reactions they catalyze. Accurate EC number prediction is essential for understanding enzyme functions. Despite the availability of numerous methods for predicting EC numbers from protein sequences, there is no unified framework for evaluating and studying such methods systematically. This gap limits the ability of the community to identify the most effective approaches for enzyme annotation. We introduce EC-Bench, a benchmark for EC number prediction, consisting of 1) an initial representative set of existing methods (including homology-based, deep learning, contrastive learning, and language model methods), 2) existing and novel accuracy and efficiency performance metrics, and 3) selected datasets to allow for comprehensive comparative study. EC-Bench is open-source and provides a framework for researchers to not only compare among existing methods objectively under uniform conditions, but also to introduce and effectively evaluate performance of new methods in a comparative framework. To demonstrate the utility of EC-Bench, we perform extensive experimentation to compare the existing EC number prediction methods and establish their advantages and disadvantages in a variety of prediction tasks, namely “exact EC number prediction”, “EC number completion” and (partial or additional) “EC number recommendation”. We find wide variation in the performance of different methods, but also subtle but potentially useful differences in the performance of different methods across tasks and for different parts of the EC hierarchy.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Using limited neural networks to assess relative mechanistic influence on shock heating in granular solids

The rapid compaction of granular media results in localized heating that can induce chemical reactions, phase transformations, and melting. However, there are numerous mechanisms in play that can be dependent on a variety of microstructural features. Machine learning techniques such as neural networks offer a ubiquitous method to develop models for physical processes. Limiting what kind of microstructural information is used as an input and assessing normalized changes in network error, the relative importance of different mechanisms can be inferred. Here we utilize binned, initial density information as network inputs to predict local shock heating in a granular high explosive trained from large-scale molecular dynamics simulations. In this study, the spatial extent of the density field used in the network is altered to assess the importance and relevant length scales of the physical mechanisms in play, where different microstructural features result in different predictive capabilities.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Osmotic Pressure Gradient Effects on Water Diffusion in Porous Rock: Can They Pervert Permeability Tests?

Abstract Generation of a large network of hydraulic cracks is of key importance not only for the success of fracking of shale but also for the recent scheme of sequestration of CO2 in deep formations of basalt and peridotite, which are mafic and ultramafic rocks that combine chemically with CO2. In numerical simulation of the creation of a fracture network in porous rock, an important goal is to enhance the rock permeability. The objective of this article is to calculate the effect of osmotic pressure gradients caused by gradients of concentration of the ions of Ca, Mg, Na, etc. on the effective permeability of the rock. The basic differential equations are formulated, and their explicit solutions for appropriate initial and boundary conditions are obtained under certain plausible simplifications. The main result is explicit approximate formulas for the critical time before which no water permeation through a test specimen can be observed. Depending on various parameters, this time can be unacceptably long, which is manifested as a zero water outflow. The solution may also explain the unreasonably small permeability values reported for some shales.

Mechanics↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development of a Portable In Situ Phosphorous Sensor

While phosphorus is a critical nutrient for all forms of life, runoff leads to phosphorus accumulation in surface water where it can cause a variety of health, environmental, and economic problems. The Department of Energy is interested in conducting long-term field experiments to monitor the impact of phosphorus in terrestrial and aquatic environments, and to better understand a cost vs. benefit analysis of reducing phosphorus pollution. Performing such long-term experiments requires affordable sensors capable of monitoring low-level phosphorus concentrations under challenging environmental conditions. However, such sensors are currently not available. The goal of this proposed project is to develop and demonstrate a low-cost portable phosphorus sensor suitable for in situ measurements. We will determine the technical requirements for a Raman-based sensor system, design and build a signal amplifier, integrate it with a Raman-based sensor, and demonstrate a proof-of-concept level sensor system. The expected accomplishments for Phase I include the identification of the technical requirements of a combined Raman laser/spectrometer and cavity enhancement system, building a proof-of-concept level sensor system capable of detecting orthophosphate compounds at the desired level of 0.25 mg P/L and organic P compounds, and verification of the sensor performance under laboratory and field conditions. In addition, we will identify initial hardening requirements that will need to be implemented during Phase II. While we plan to develop an integrated sensor system for monitoring phosphorus, the cavity-based enhancement system can also be used in combination with other (non-phosphorus) Raman sensors that we plan to develop or that are already commercially available. A recent market report highlights the increasing demand for such environmental monitoring applications, with the market for chemical detection anticipated to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 6.5% (2020-2025). Wide-spread monitoring of phosphorus could reduce the damage from eutrophication in freshwater, which is estimated to be $2.2 billion annually, thereby increasing biodiversity, reducing costs required for drinking water treatment, and decreasing economic losses related to recreation and angling and lake property values.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Review of Microwave-Assisted Synthesis-Based Approaches to Reduce Pd-Content in Catalysts

This review article focuses on the latest advances in the synthesis of inorganic nano-catalysts using microwave heating, which has progressed significantly since its initial implementation in the mid-1980s. Over the years, nanoparticles (NPs), which inherently offer better surface accessibility for heterogeneous catalysis, have been synthesized using a wide array of heating methods. Microwave heating is one such method and employs a unique heating mechanism that can have several benefits for catalysis. When compared to conventional form of heating which relies on inter-layer mixing via convection, microwave heating operates through the chemical polarity in the target chemicals leading to an “inside-out” mode of heating. This heating mechanism is more targeted and therefore results in rapid synthesis of catalytically active NPs. Platinum group metals (PGM) have classically been the focus of nano-catalysis; however, recent efforts have also applied non-PGM group metals with the goals of lower costs, and ideally, improved catalytic reactivity and durability. This is especially of interest with respect to Pd because of its current historically high cost. Investigations into these new materials have primarily focused on new/improved synthetic methods and catalytic compositions, but it is important to note that these approaches must also be economic and scalable to attain practical relevance. With this overarching goal in mind, this review summarizes notable recent findings with a focus on Pd-dilution and microwave heating in a chronological fashion.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Rational Design of Weakly‐Solvating Molecules for Salt‐In‐Pre‐Ionic‐Liquid Electrolytes for Li Metal Batteries

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) promise step‐changes in energy densities but suffer from poor cycle life due to unstable electrolyte‐lithium interfaces. Conventional carbonate electrolytes exhibit excessive lithium‐ion solvation and low oxidative stability, leading to rapid capacity loss. Herein, we report a rationally designed weakly‐solvating cyclic sulfonamide, 1‐trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide pyrrolidine (TFMSPyr), which integrates an electron‐withdrawing trifluoromethanesulfonyl functional group at pyrrolidinic‐N. TFMSPyr acts as a pre‐ionic‐liquid solvent that forms intrinsically localized, anion‐dominated solvation, coupling molecular architecture, solvation topology, and transport dynamics. As a result, LiFSI based salt‐in‐pre‐ionic‐liquid (SIPIL) electrolytes exhibit high lithium‐ion transference number, oxidative stability > 5 V versus Li/Li + and anion‐derived solid electrolyte interphases (SEI). Li||Cu cells with SIPIL deliver a first cycle Coulombic efficiency (CE) of ≈ 99% with average CE of 99.2% for 100 cycles, and lithium half‐cells with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathode exhibit 82% capacity retention after 400 cycles with CE of 99.98%. In anode‐free full cells, 95% of initial capacity is retained after 63 cycles with an average CE of 99.5%. These results demonstrate that molecular engineering of solvents offers a powerful pathway to stabilize lithium metal interfaces and enable practical Anodeless LMBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Elongated Fullerene Unlocks Oxygen-Resistant Perovskite Solar Minimodules

State-of-the-art encapsulation cannot prevent the permeation of oxygen into perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Here, we report the finding that p-i-n structured PSCs degrade quickly under oxygen exposure. Oxidation of C60, rather than perovskites, dominates the degradation. Chemical absorption of oxygen by C60 is identified, which impairs its electron transport property. We modify the electron transport layers to address the instability under oxygen exposure. The elongated fullerene C70 is found to react with oxygen orders of magnitude slower than C60. In combination with a compact SnO2 buffer fabricated by atomic layer deposition, which can slow down the oxygen diffusion, the resulting unencapsulated PSCs with C70 retained 90% of their initial efficiency after 1-sun illumination in pure oxygen for 1,200 h at 70 degrees C, improving stability by hundreds of times. Testing of unencapsulated perovskite minimodules of different perovskite compositions with C70 gives extrapolated lifetimes of 17-41 years at 50 degrees C.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

The Urban Observatory: A Multi-Modal Imaging Platform for the Study of Dynamics in Complex Urban Systems

We describe an “Urban Observatory” facility designed for the study of complex urban systems via persistent, synoptic, and granular imaging of dynamical processes in cities. An initial deployment of the facility has been demonstrated in New York City and consists of a suite of imaging systems—both broadband and hyperspectral—sensitive to wavelengths from the visible (∼400 nm) to the infrared (∼13 micron) operating at cadences of ∼0.01–30 Hz (characteristically ∼0.1 Hz). Much like an astronomical survey, the facility generates a large imaging catalog from which we have extracted observables (e.g., time-dependent brightnesses, spectra, temperatures, chemical species, etc.), collecting them in a parallel source catalog. We have demonstrated that, in addition to the urban science of cities as systems, these data are applicable to a myriad of domain-specific scientific inquiries related to urban functioning including energy consumption and end use, environmental impacts of cities, and patterns of life and public health. We show that an Urban Observatory facility of this type has the potential to improve both a city’s operations and the quality of life of its inhabitants.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mn(III)-mediated bisphenol a degradation: Mechanisms and products

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume chemical with potential estrogenic effects susceptible to abiotic degradation by MnO 2 . BPA transformation products and reaction mechanisms with MnO 2 have been investigated, but detailed process understanding of Mn(III)-mediated degradation has not been attained. Rapid consumption of BPA occurred in batch reaction vessels with 1 mM Mn(III) and 63.9 ± 0.7% of 1.76 ± 0.02 μmol BPA was degraded in 1 hour at circumneutral pH. BPA was consumed at 1.86 ± 0.09-fold higher rates in vessels with synthetic MnO 2 comprising approximately 13 mol% surface-associated Mn(III) versus surface-Mn(III)-free MnO 2 , and 10–35% of BPA transformation could be attributed to Mn(III) during the initial 10-min reaction phase. High-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (HRMS/MS) analysis detected eight transformation intermediates in reactions with Mn(III), and quantum calculations proposed 14 BPA degradation products, nine of which had not been observed during MnO 2 -mediated BPA degradation, suggesting mechanistic differences between Mn(III)- versus MnO 2 -mediated BPA degradation. Finally, the findings demonstrate that both Mn(III) and Mn(IV) can effectively degrade BPA and indicate that surface-associated Mn(III) increases the reactivity of synthetic MnO 2 , offering opportunities for engineering more reactive oxidized Mn species for BPA removal.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Thermostable Enzyme Variants in the Lower Mevalonate Pathway Improve Isoprenoid Production by Cell-Free Biocatalysis

Cell-free biocatalysis is a rapidly evolving field with great potential for sustainably producing valuable chemicals. Some challenges in cell-free biocatalysis include reaction longevity, enzyme stability, and the cost of the biocatalysts. Here, the challenge of enzyme instability was addressed by employing thermophilic enzymes to improve the productivity of the lower mevalonate pathway, using limonene as an example isoprenoid product. The Classical mesophilic mevalonate pathway was compared to a newly assembled set of thermophilic enzymes comprising the Archaea I mevalonate pathway. The thermophilic pathway enzymes were thermostable to at least 60 °C and exhibited a 6× longer operating lifetime at 22 °C. Thus, despite lower initial activity rates at ambient temperature, the thermophilic pathway was longer-lived and resulted in a more productive cell-free reaction overall, achieving 1.7× higher yield of limonene compared to using enzymes from mesophiles. Moreover, the thermostable pathway retained activity for longer with the challenge of solvent exposure, namely, ethanol and isoprenol, which broadens the scope of accessible substrates and/or products in cell-free reactions employing this pathway. Altogether, we showed significant improvement in the stability and productivity of the lower mevalonate pathway, which will enable more efficient cell-free biosynthesis of isoprenoid products. This represents a valuable strategy to increase the robustness of cell-free systems by carefully sourcing biocatalysts from thermophilic organisms, which have proven to be resilient to challenges unique to cell-free reaction systems.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Impact of Anode to Cathode Crossover in Lithium‐metal Batteries With High‐Nickel Cathodes

The advancement of high-energy-density lithium-metal batteries (LMBs) is hindered by the chemical instability of both lithium-metal anode and high-nickel layered oxide cathodes. While cathode-to-anode crossover is well-documented, the reverse process of anode-to-cathode crossover remains underexplored. Here, we systematically investigate such crossovers and the degradation pathway in pouch cells with a localized high-concentration electrolyte, comparing NMC622, NMC811, and NMC90 cathodes paired with lithium-metal and graphite anodes. Despite delivering higher initial capacities, LMBs exhibit faster capacity fade under long-term cycling at 45 °C. To isolate cathode-side degradation, galvanostatic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (GEIS) measurements of cycled cathodes paired with delithiated lithium iron phosphate (LFP) counter electrodes reveal significantly higher charge-transfer resistance in cathodes cycled with lithium-metal. Surface characterization via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) reveals greater electrolyte decomposition on cathodes cycled with lithium metal, leading to thicker, more organic-rich cathode–electrolyte interphases (CEIs), consistent with the elevated charge-transfer resistance observed in GEIS measurements. Notably, NMC90 shows the most pronounced CEI thickening, linking higher cathode surface reactivity to greater susceptibility to anode-to-cathode crossover. This work presents compelling evidence of crosstalk degradation originating from lithium-metal anodes and underscores the importance of cross-interface stability for the design of durable LMBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Electrochemical Reduction Selectivity of Crotonaldehyde on Copper

Lignocellulosic waste is a potential feedstock for the generation of fuels and commodity chemicals, but existing conversion methods are too cost-intensive to be viable long-term solutions. Electrochemical reductions are promising for decentralized biomass valorization due to their modular scaling and capacity to run intermittently and without high temperatures or pressures. Using crotonaldehyde as a multi-functional model compound for the many partially unsaturated oxygenates found in processed biomass, we here demonstrate the production of butanal, butanol, butene, and butane (variously useful as commodity chemicals and major components of liquified petroleum gas) under ambient conditions by reductive bulk electrolysis with a copper mesh working electrode. We identify an optimum potential for reduced organic production under the reaction conditions and compare product distributions from reductions of intermediate species to further propose branching reaction pathways. Though butanal is typically the most abundant product from crotonaldehyde reduction, most of the butene and butane appear to result from a pathway involving initial reduction of the aldehyde group. We discuss evidence that selectivity is driven by interplay between crotonaldehyde reduction, local pH shifts due to the hydrogen evolution reaction, and changes in site reactivity and availability due to electrode fouling. This demonstration of model electrochemical biomass valorization also serves to inform further exploration into reduction of multi-functional molecules and electrochemical biomass processing in general.

biomass↗
DOE OSTI2022

Morphological and crystallographic controls in the replacement of calcite and aragonite by cerussite and otavite

Mineral replacement reactions are essential solid-fluid interactions in natural and industrial processes including metasomatism, diagenesis, and metamorphism, and sequestration of metal toxins from polluted water. In this paper, we explore the morphological evolution of aragonite and calcite (polymorphs of CaCO 3 ) during their replacement by cerussite (PbCO 3 , an isomorph of aragonite) and otavite (CdCO 3 , an isomorph of calcite) in acidic aqueous solutions (with initial pH 3 to 4). Observations using scanning electron and synchrotron-based transmission X-ray microscopies reveal the formation of pseudomorphic shells (~5 to 10 µm thick) of cerussite and otavite when Pb 2+ is reacted with either calcite or aragonite and when Cd 2+ is reacted with aragonite. The formation of pore space at the substrate-precipitate interface and within the precipitate is found to be key in promoting chemical exchange between the dissolving phase and the solution. In contrast, minimal reactivity is observed when Cd 2+ is reacted with calcite. These results demonstrate that the lack of substrate-precipitate epitaxy (either because of inconsistent symmetries or due to large lattice constant mismatch) is a critical factor that enables replacement of primary CaCO 3 minerals by Pb- or Cd-bearing secondary minerals while the presence of epitaxial relationships inhibit those reactions. When calcite and aragonite coexist, the replacement of aragonite by cerussite and otavite occurs preferentially over calcite. We postulate that the relative reactivity of calcite and aragonite to Pb 2+ and Cd 2+ can be determined by interplay between morphological and crystallographic properties of CaCO 3 materials as well as solution chemistry. Our results demonstrate that coupled dissolution-precipitation processes of carbonate minerals play an important role in controlling mobility and bioavailability of lead and cadmium in environments where acidic metal-contaminated water interacts with carbonate-rich rocks and soils.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Excited State Covalency, Dynamics, and Photochemistry of Square Planar Ni-Thiolate Complexes Revealed by Ultrafast X-ray Absorption

Highly covalent Ni bis(dithiolene) and related complexes provide an ideal platform for investigating the effects of metal–ligand orbital hybridization on excited state character and dynamics. In particular, we focus on the ligand field excited states that dominate the photophysics of first-row transition metal complexes. Here, we investigate if they can be significantly delocalized off the metal center, possibly yielding photochemical reactivity more similar to charge transfer excited states than metal-centered ligand field excited states. Here [Ni(mpo) 2 ] (mpo = 2-mercaptopyridine- N-oxide) provides a representative example for the larger chemical class and is an active electro- and photo-catalyst for proton reduction. A detailed characterization of the excited state electronic structure, dynamics, and photochemistry of [Ni(mpo) 2 ] is presented based on ultrafast transient X- ray absorption spectroscopy at the Ni and S 1s core absorption K-edges. By comparing the ultrafast Ni K-edge absorption to ab initio calculations, we identify an excited state relaxation mechanism where an initial ligand-to-metal charge transfer excitation results in both excited state electron transfer (generating a catalytically relevant reduced photoproduct [Ni(mpo) 2 ] − ) and relaxation to a pseudo-tetrahedral triplet ligand field excited state. From the ultrafast S K-edge absorption, the ligand field excited state is found to be highly delocalized onto the thiolate ligands and a tetrahedral structural distortion is shown to substantially influence the degree of delocalization. The results identify a significant structural coordinate to target when aiming to control the excited state covalency in square planar complexes.

Lim, Hyeongtaek [SLAC National Accelerator Laborat↗
DOE OSTI2024

Compositional and temporal division of labor modulates mixed sugar fermentation by an engineered yeast consortium

Abstract Synthetic microbial communities have emerged as an attractive route for chemical bioprocessing. They are argued to be superior to single strains through microbial division of labor (DOL), but the exact mechanism by which DOL confers advantages remains unclear. Here, we utilize a synthetic Saccharomyces cerevisiae consortium along with mathematical modeling to achieve tunable mixed sugar fermentation to overcome the limitations of single-strain fermentation. The consortium involves two strains with each specializing in glucose or xylose utilization for ethanol production. By controlling initial community composition, DOL allows fine tuning of fermentation dynamics and product generation. By altering inoculation delay, DOL provides additional programmability to parallelly regulate fermentation characteristics and product yield. Mathematical models capture observed experimental findings and further offer guidance for subsequent fermentation optimization. This study demonstrates the functional potential of DOL in bioprocessing and provides insight into the rational design of engineered ecosystems for various applications.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗