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At least 847 records · Page 47
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Rapid pulse annealing of CdZnTe detectors for reducing electronic noise

A combination of doping, rapid pulsed optical and/or thermal annealing, and unique detector structure reduces or eliminates sources of electronic noise in a CdZnTe (CZT) detector. According to several embodiments, methods of forming a detector exhibiting minimal electronic noise include: pulse-annealing at least one surface of a detector comprising CZT for one or more pulses, each pulse having a duration of .about.0.1 seconds or less. The at least one surface may optionally be ion-implanted. In another embodiment, a CZT detector includes a detector surface with two or more electrodes operating at different electric potentials and coupled to the detector surface; and one or more ion-implanted CZT surfaces on or in the detector surface, each of the one or more ion-implanted CZT surfaces being independently connected to one of the two or more electrodes and the surface of the detector. At least two of the ion-implanted surfaces are in electrical contact.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2014

Selective surface treatment of thallium bromide (TLBR)-based detectors to improve longevity and/or restore operational capacity thereof

In various approaches room-temperature gamma detector longevity may be improved by selectively removing, or selectively incorporating, alternate halogen component(s) from select surfaces of the detector. According to one embodiment, a method of improving operational longevity of a thallium bromide (TlBr)-based detector includes: selectively treating one or more surfaces of the TlBr-based detector to produce a surface substantially comprising pure TlBr. Similar techniques may be employed to restore a degraded or failed detector. According to another embodiment, a method of forming a TlBr-based detector exhibiting improved operational longevity includes: selectively treating one or more surfaces of the TlBr-based detector to replace Br therein with one or more alternate halogen components while also substantially avoiding replacing some or all of the Br in other surfaces of the TlBr-based detector with the one or more alternate halogen components. Corresponding structures for TlBr-based detectors with improved longevity are also described.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Evaluating the ProtoDUNE-SP Detector Performance to Measure a 6 GeV/c Positive Kaon Inelastic Cross Section on Argon

The ProtoDUNE Single-Phase Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber \\ (ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC) is a prototype for the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE), a future long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment. Based at the CERN Neutrino Platform, ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC collected data from a charged test beam in the fall of 2018. It then took data of cosmic-ray muons from November 2018 to the summer of 2020. The main goals of the prototype were to measure parameters related to charged particle passage in argon and evaluate the performance of the detector to inform future DUNE Far Detector development. The test beam provided kaons, pions, muons, protons, and electrons to the detector. These particles represent common final state particles in neutrino interactions, therefore providing information to DUNE on modeling charged particles in argon for its neutrino physics program. In addition to neutrino physics, DUNE has proposed an analysis using the DUNE Far Detector module to set limits for proton decay through the decay channel $p\rightarrow K^++\bar{\nu}$. This measurement would require information on kaons in argon, providing ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC another opportunity to aid DUNE. This thesis describes the calibration of ProtoDUNE-SP and its detector performance, which serves as a benchmark for the performance of the DUNE Far Detector modules. A specific calibration highlighted is the evaluation of the liquid argon purity in the detector. These measurements use cosmic-ray muons reconstructed in the detector that are calibrated and matched to data from scintillator strips external to the TPC, known as the Cosmic Ray Tagger (CRT). The thesis will discuss the algorithms to match the data between the ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC and the CRT and discuss the liquid argon purity measurements using one of the algorithms. Data sets of calibrated tracks measured the liquid argon contamination as consistently below 100 ppt oxygen equivalent. After these discussions on the ProtoDUNE-SP LArTPC detector, the thesis will present an evaluation of the inclusive inelastic, sometimes referred to as a reactive, cross section on argon of kaons from the ProtoDUNE-SP test beam with an average momentum of 6 GeV/c.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2015

Performance of B-10 based detectors

Helium-3 gas-filled detectors have been used in nuclear safeguards applications, in homeland security neutron detection modules and in research for over 30 years. With the current shortage of {sup 3}He gas, GE's Reuter-Stokes business developed a {sup 10}B lined proportional counter and a {sup 10}B hybrid detector, in which a small amount of {sup 3}He is added to a 10B detector to enhance the neutron sensitivity. In 2010, GE's Reuter-Stokes successfully developed a commercial alternative to 3He gas-filled detectors for homeland security neutron detection modules based on 10B lined proportional counters. We will present the concept behind the {sup 10}B neutron detection modules, as drop-in replacement to existing 3He neutron detection modules deployed, and the timeline and development needed to get a fully commercial application. To ensure the highest quality, each {sup 10}B neutron detection unit is put through a series of tests: temperature cycles from -40 deg. C to +55 deg. C, vibration testing at levels up to 2.5 g from 10 Hz to 50 Hz in every direction, neutron sensitivity reaching up to 4.5 cps/(ng {sup 252}CF at 2 m), and gamma insensitivity with field reaching 1 Sv/hr. In 2013, GE's Reuter-Stokes developed the B10Plus+{sup R} detector, in which a small amount of {sup 3}He is added to a {sup 10}B lined proportional counter. Depending on the amount of {sup 3}He added, the B10Plus+{sup R} can more than double the neutron sensitivity compared to a {sup 10}B lined proportional counter. {sup 10}B lined proportional counters and B10Plus+{sup R} have excellent gamma rejection and excellent performance even at very high neutron flux. The gamma rejection and high neutron flux performance of these detectors are comparable, if not better, than traditional {sup 3}He proportional counters. GE's Reuter-Stokes business modelled, designed, built and tested prototype coincidence counters using the {sup 10}B lined detectors and the {sup 10}B hybrid detectors. We will present these systems and their applications for non-destructive assay. We will also show other examples of applications where {sup 10}B lined proportional counters and B10Plus+{sup R} detectors can be used. (authors)

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2026

Characterizing the Electromagnetic Response of the NOvA Detectors

The NOvA Test Beam Program was commissioned to complement the full-scale NOvA experiment in its goal of measuring neutrino oscillations. The NOvA Experiment consists of a 300-ton Near Detector and a 14-kton Far Detector, both exposed to the same beam, which can be operated in neutrino or antineutrino mode from Fermilab at an off-axis angle of 14.6~mrad. These detectors can discriminate between $\nu_\mu$-CC and $\nu_e$-CC neutrino (or corresponding antineutrino) events, enabling appearance and disappearance measurements of these flavors across the \SI{810}{\kilo\meter} near-to-far detector baseline. From these measurements, the underlying parameters of the three-flavor PMNS oscillations framework are measured. The NOvA Test Beam uses identical technology to the full-scale detectors, but scaled down to 30~tons. It is exposed to a beam of charged particles closely matched to the daughter products of NOvA (anti)neutrino interactions in both energy and species. An instrumented beamline determines both particle momentum and species upstream of the NOvA detector, allowing for a crisp measurement of the NOvA detector response to these known inputs. This dissertation presents an analysis of the electromagnetic response of the NOvA hardware and establishes a framework for incorporating these results to enhance the physics reach of the experiment. Prior to this work, the electromagnetic energy response of the NOvA detector relied primarily on simulation-driven calibration together with a globally applied energy scale uncertainty. The measurements presented here provide direct test beam constraints on the detector response, enabling particle-dependent and potentially energy-dependent uncertainty models derived from controlled electromagnetic inputs.

Myers, Dalton Grant [U. Texas, Austin (main)] (ORC↗
DOE OSTI2024

Novel indium phosphide charged particle detector characterization with a 120 GeV proton beam

Thin film detectors which incorporate semiconductor materials other than silicon have the potential to build upon their unique material properties and offer advantages such as faster response times, operation at room temperature, and radiation hardness. To explore the possibility, promising candidate materials were selected, and particle tracking detectors were fabricated. An indium phosphide detector with a metal-intrinsic-metal structure has been fabricated for particle tracking. The detector was tested using radioactive sources and a high energy proton beam at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. In addition to its simplistic design and fabrication process, the indium phosphide particle detector showed a very fast response time of hundreds of picoseconds for the 120 GeV protons, which are comparable to the ultra-fast silicon detectors. This fast-timing response is attributed to the high electron mobility of indium phosphide. Such material properties can be leveraged to build novel detectors with superlative performance.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2015

Use of high-granularity CdZnTe pixelated detectors to correct response non-uniformities caused by defects in crystals

Following our successful demonstration of the position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid detectors, we investigated the feasibility of using high-granularity position sensing to correct response non-uniformities caused by the crystal defects in CdZnTe (CZT) pixelated detectors. The development of high-granularity detectors able to correct response non-uniformities on a scale comparable to the size of electron clouds opens the opportunity of using unselected off-the-shelf CZT material, whilst still assuring high spectral resolution for the majority of the detectors fabricated from an ingot. Here, we present the results from testing 3D position-sensitive 15×15×10 mm 3 pixelated detectors, fabricated with conventional pixel patterns with progressively smaller pixel sizes: 1.4, 0.8, and 0.5 mm. We employed the readout system based on the H3D front-end multi-channel ASIC developed by BNL's Instrumentation Division in collaboration with the University of Michigan. We use the sharing of electron clouds among several adjacent pixels to measure locations of interaction points with sub-pixel resolution. By using the detectors with small-pixel sizes and a high probability of the charge-sharing events, we were able to improve their spectral resolutions in comparison to the baseline levels, measured for the 1.4-mm pixel size detectors with small fractions of charge-sharing events. These results demonstrate that further enhancement of the performance of CZT pixelated detectors and reduction of costs are possible by using high spatial-resolution position information of interaction points to correct the small-scale response non-uniformities caused by crystal defects present in most devices.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Performance of 8 × 8 × 32 and 10 × 10 × 32 mm 3 CdZnTe position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid detectors for high-energy gamma ray cameras

CdZnTe (CZT) crystals with thicknesses up to 20 mm and diameters up to 75 mm have become available from Redlen Technologies, Inc. for making large-volume gamma-ray detectors. The modified growth and optimized annealing conditions allowed Redlen to minimize the dark current and improve the uniformity of CZT crystals. Two detector designs, pixelated (H3D) and position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid (VFG), have greatly benefitted from the availability of such big crystals. Encouraging results from testing of 40×40×15 mm 3 pixelated detectors were recently reported by the University of Michigan. In this work, we evaluated the spectroscopic properties of 8×8×32 and 10×10×32 mm 3 crystals configured as position-sensitive VFG detectors. Both digitized waveforms and an analog ASIC were used to read and process the signals from the detectors and test their spectral- and spatial-resolution. The VFG design provides the flexibility to scale-up the dimensions of the detectors for the desired efficiency, while the position information allows for correcting the detectors' response non-uniformity caused by crystal defects and devices geometry, thereby reducing the instrument cost and making them more feasible for emerging applications in gamma-ray astronomy, nonproliferation, portal screening and nuclear safeguards, where large detector arrays are often required.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2015

A MAPS Based Micro-Vertex Detector for the STAR Experiment

For the 2014 heavy ion run of RHIC a new micro-vertex detector called the Heavy Flavor Tracker (HFT) was installed in the STAR experiment. The HFT consists of three detector subsystems with various silicon technologies arranged in 4 approximately concentric cylinders close to the STAR interaction point designed to improve the STAR detector’s vertex resolution and extend its measurement capabilities in the heavy flavor domain. The two innermost HFT layers are placed at radii of 2.8 cm and 8 cm from the beam line. These layers are constructed with 400 high resolution sensors based on CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) technology arranged in 10-sensor ladders mounted on 10 thin carbon fiber sectors to cover a total silicon area of 0.16 m 2 . Each sensor of this PiXeL (“PXL”) sub-detector combines a pixel array of 928 rows and 960 columns with a 20.7 μm pixel pitch together with front-end electronics and zero-suppression circuitry in one silicon die providing a sensitive area of ~3.8 cm 2 . This sensor architecture features 185.6 μs readout time and 170 mW/cm 2 power dissipation. This low power dissipation allows the PXL detector to be air-cooled, and with the sensors thinned down to 50 μm results in a global material budget of only 0.4% radiation length per layer. A novel mechanical approach to detector insertion allows us to effectively install and integrate the PXL sub-detector within a 12 hour period during an on-going multi-month data taking period. The detector requirements, architecture and design, as well as the performance after installation, are presented in this paper.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Design and validation of a cold load for characterization of CMB-S4 detectors

We present the design and validation of a variable temperature cryogenic blackbody source, hereinafter called a cold load, that will be used to characterize detectors to be deployed by CMB-S4, the next-generation ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment. Although cold loads have been used for detector characterization by previous CMB experiments, this cold load has three novel design features: (1) the ability to operate from the 1 K stage of a dilution refrigerator (DR), (2) a 3He gas-gap heat switch to reduce cooling time, and (3) the ability to couple small external optical signals to measure detector optical time constants under low optical loading. The efficacy of this design was validated using a 150 GHz detector array previously deployed by the Spider experiment. Here, thermal tests showed that the cold load can be heated to temperatures required for characterizing CMB-S4’s detectors without significantly impacting the temperatures of other cryogenic stages when mounted to the DR’s 1 K stage. Additionally, optical tests demonstrated that external signals can be coupled to a detector array through the cold load without imparting a significant optical load on the detectors, which will enable measurements of the CMB-S4 detectors’ optical time constants.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2016

Deadtime Calculations of Liquid Scintillator Neutron Detector Using Attenuation Law

Scientists have been working on deadtime problems for radiation detectors since 1940's. In detector systems, a minimum time must separate two different events before they can be measured individually. That minimum time interval is called to be deadtime of detector system. There are two commonly deadtime models: the paralyzing and the non-paralyzing models. Paralyzing model assumes that each event during the deadtime will reset the deadtime and deadtime extension will depend on the count rate. According to the non-paralyzing model, deadtime is fixed after each detected event and all events occurring during deadtime are lost. In this study, deadtime measurements have been obtained for an N-Probe fast neutron (NE-213 Liquid Scintillation) detector manufactured by BTI (Bubble Technology Industries) using a combination of the attenuation law and the assumption of ideal paralyzing and non-paralyzing method. Bubble Technology Industries (BTI) has manufactured a portable neutron scintillation spectrometer (N-Probe) with potential applications at nuclear reactor facilities, waste processing operations, and spent fuel storage areas. The deadtime of the N-Probe detector is not provided by the manufacturer; BTI, and there is no other study published on the N-Probe detector' deadtime. Since the detector will be used in future nuclear fuel investigations, it is important to determine the detector' deadtime for accurate nuclear fuel analysis. The deadtime of the BTI N-Probe was examined using different thicknesses of Plexiglas at the Missouri University of Science and Technology Reactor (MSTR) using attenuation law and average macroscopic cross-section of Plexiglas defined by both paralyzing and non-paralyzing model. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2022

The straw tracking detector for the Fermilab Muon g-2 Experiment

The Muon g-2 Experiment at Fermilab uses a gaseous straw tracking detector to make detailed measurements of the stored muon beam profile, which are essential for the experiment to achieve its uncertainty goals. Positrons from muon decays spiral inward and pass through the tracking detector before striking an electromagnetic calorimeter. The tracking detector is therefore located inside the vacuum chamber in a region where the magnetic field is large and non-uniform. As such, the tracking detector must have a low leak rate to maintain a high-quality vacuum, must be non-magnetic so as not to perturb the magnetic field and, to minimize energy loss, must have a low radiation length. The performance of the tracking detector has met or surpassed the design requirements, with adequate electronic noise levels, an average straw hit resolution of (110 ± 20) μm, a detection efficiency of 97% or higher, and no performance degradation or signs of aging. The tracking detector's measurements result in an otherwise unachievable understanding of the muon's beam motion, particularly at early times in the experiment's measurement period when there are a significantly greater number of muons decaying. This is vital to the statistical power of the experiment, as well as facilitating the precise extraction of several systematic corrections and uncertainties. This paper describes the design, construction, testing, commissioning, and performance of the tracking detector.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

AI-assisted detector design for the EIC (AID(2)E)

Artificial Intelligence is poised to transform the design of complex, large-scale detectors like ePIC at the future Electron Ion Collider. Featuring a central detector with additional detecting systems in the far forward and far backward regions, the ePIC experiment incorporates numerous design parameters and objectives, including performance, physics reach, and cost, constrained by mechanical and geometric limits. This project aims to develop a scalable, distributed AI-assisted detector design for the EIC (AID(2)E), employing state-of-the-art multiobjective optimization to tackle complex designs. Supported by the ePIC software stack and using G EANT 4 simulations, our approach benefits from transparent parameterization and advanced AI features. The workflow leverages the PanDA and iDDS systems, used in major experiments such as ATLAS at CERN LHC, the Rubin Observatory, and sPHENIX at RHIC, to manage the compute intensive demands of ePIC detector simulations. Tailored enhancements to the PanDA system focus on usability, scalability, automation, and monitoring. Ultimately, this project aims to establish a robust design capability, apply a distributed AI-assisted workflow to the ePIC detector, and extend its applications to the design of the second detector (Detector-2) in the EIC, as well as to calibration and alignment tasks. Additionally, we are developing advanced data science tools to efficiently navigate the complex, multidimensional trade-offs identified through this optimization process.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2012

Deuterium-tritium neutron yield measurements with the 4.5 m neutron-time-of-flight detectors at NIF

The first several campaigns of laser fusion experiments at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) included a family of high-sensitivity scintillator/photodetector neutron-time-of-flight (nTOF) detectors for measuring deuterium-deuterium (DD) and DT neutron yields. The detectors provided consistent neutron yield (Y{sub n}) measurements from below 10{sup 9} (DD) to nearly 10{sup 15} (DT). The detectors initially demonstrated detector-to-detector Y{sub n} precisions better than 5%, but lacked in situ absolute calibrations. Recent experiments at NIF now have provided in situ DT yield calibration data that establish the absolute sensitivity of the 4.5 m differential tissue harmonic imaging (DTHI) detector with an accuracy of {+-}10% and precision of {+-}1%. The 4.5 m nTOF calibration measurements also have helped to establish improved detector impulse response functions and data analysis methods, which have contributed to improving the accuracy of the Y{sub n} measurements. These advances have also helped to extend the usefulness of nTOF measurements of ion temperature and downscattered neutron ratio (neutron yield 10-12 MeV divided by yield 13-15 MeV) with other nTOF detectors.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2013

Biparametric analyses of charge trapping in Cd{sub 0.9}Zn{sub 0.1}Te based virtual Frisch grid detectors

Detector grade Cd{sub 0.9}Zn{sub 0.1}Te (CZT) single crystals were grown from zone refined Cd, Zn, and Te ({approx}7 N) precursor materials, using a tellurium solvent method. Detectors with virtual Frisch grid configuration were fabricated using these crystals. I-V measurements revealed low leakage currents at room-temperature, {approx}11 nA for one such detector D1 and {approx}8 nA for another detector D2 at 1100 V. The spectroscopic performances of the two CZT virtual Frisch grid detectors have been evaluated and compared for high energy gamma ray detection. Detector D1 showed a well-resolved pulse-height spectrum with an energy resolution of {approx}1.6% for the 662 keV gamma rays. Detector D2 also showed a distinct 662 keV peak but with a broader pulse-height distribution. A digital biparametric correlation study of the depth of interaction and energy deposited by the 662 keV gamma rays was carried out. A different kind of correlation pattern from that observed normally for hole trapping was noticed in the case of detector D2. Correlation of results from thermally stimulated current measurement studies suggested that the anomalous biparametric correlation pattern was due to the trapping of holes but modified by the virtual Frisch grid effect. The results also suggested that the effect of electron trapping could not be ruled out either. Finally, a digital correction scheme was applied to recover the {sup 137}Cs spectrum from the effect of charge loss.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2015

Efficient scalable solid-state neutron detector

We report on scalable solid-state neutron detector system that is specifically designed to yield high thermal neutron detection sensitivity. The basic detector unit in this system is made of a {sup 6}Li foil coupled to two crystalline silicon diodes. The theoretical intrinsic efficiency of a detector-unit is 23.8% and that of detector element comprising a stack of five detector-units is 60%. Based on the measured performance of this detector-unit, the performance of a detector system comprising a planar array of detector elements, scaled to encompass effective area of 0.43 m{sup 2}, is estimated to yield the minimum absolute efficiency required of radiological portal monitors used in homeland security.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

A new neutron time-of-flight detector for yield and ion-temperature measurements at the OMEGA Laser Facility

A new neutron time-of-flight (nTOF) detector for deuterium–deuterium (DD)-fusion yield and ion-temperature measurements was designed, installed, and calibrated for the OMEGA Laser Facility. This detector provides an additional line of sight for DD neutron yield and ion-temperature measurements for yields exceeding 1 × 10 10 with higher precision than existing detectors. The nTOF detector consists of a 90-mm-diam, 20-mm-thick BC-422 scintillator and a gated Photek photomultiplier tube (PMT240). The PMT collects scintillating light through the 20-mm side of the scintillator without the use of a light guide. There is no lead shielding from hard x rays in order to allow the x-ray instrument response function of the detector to be measured easily. Instead, hard x-ray signals generated in implosion experiments are gated out by the PMT. The design provides a place for glass neutral-density filters between the scintillator and the PMT to avoid PMT saturation at high yields. The nTOF detector is installed in the OMEGA Target Bay along the P8A sub-port line of sight at a distance of 5.3 m from the target chamber center. In addition to DD measurements, the same detector can be used to measure the neutron yield and ion temperature from deuterium–tritium (DT) implosion targets in the 5 × 10 10 to 2 × 10 12 yield range. Here, the design details and the calibration results of this nTOF detector for both D 2 and DT implosions on OMEGA will be presented.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2015

LOCALIZATION OF SHORT DURATION GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE TRANSIENTS WITH THE EARLY ADVANCED LIGO AND VIRGO DETECTORS

The Laser Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (LIGO) and Virgo advanced ground-based gravitational-wave detectors will begin collecting science data in 2015. With first detections expected to follow, it is important to quantify how well generic gravitational-wave transients can be localized on the sky. This is crucial for correctly identifying electromagnetic counterparts as well as understanding gravitational-wave physics and source populations. We present a study of sky localization capabilities for two search and parameter estimation algorithms: coherent WaveBurst, a constrained likelihood algorithm operating in close to real-time, and LALInferenceBurst, a Markov chain Monte Carlo parameter estimation algorithm developed to recover generic transient signals with latency of a few hours. Furthermore, we focus on the first few years of the advanced detector era, when we expect to only have two (2015) and later three (2016) operational detectors, all below design sensitivity. These detector configurations can produce significantly different sky localizations, which we quantify in detail. We observe a clear improvement in localization of the average detected signal when progressing from two-detector to three-detector networks, as expected. Although localization depends on the waveform morphology, approximately 50% of detected signals would be imaged after observing 100-200 deg{sup 2} in 2015 and 60-110 deg{sup 2} in 2016, although knowledge of the waveform can reduce this to as little as 22 deg{sup 2}. This is the first comprehensive study on sky localization capabilities for generic transients of the early network of advanced LIGO and Virgo detectors, including the early LIGO-only two-detector configuration.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗