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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Aerosol Microphysical and Radiative Effects on Continental Cloud Ensembles

Aerosol-cloud-radiation interactions represent one of the largest uncertainties in the current climate assessment. Much of the complexity arises from the non-monotonic responses of clouds, precipitation and radiative fluxes to aerosol perturbations under various meteorological conditions. Here, an aerosol-aware Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is used to investigate the microphysical and radiative effects of aerosols in three weather systems during the March 2000 Cloud Intensive Observational Period campaign at the Southern Great Plains site of the US Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program. Three cloud ensembles with different meteorological conditions are simulated, including a low-pressure deep convective cloud system, a series of lessprecipitating stratus and shallow cumulus, and a cold frontal passage. The WRF simulations are evaluated by the available observations of cloud fraction, liquid water path, precipitation, and surface temperature. The microphysical properties of cloud hydrometeors, such as their mass and number concentrations, generally show monotonic trends as a function of cloud condensation nuclei concentrations. Aerosol radiative effects do not interfere the trends of cloud microphysics, except for the stratus and shallow cumulus cases where aerosol semi-direct effects are identified. The precipitation changes by aerosols vary with the cloud types and their evolving stages, with more prominent aerosol invigoration effect and associated enhanced precipitation from the convective sources. Furthermore, the simulated aerosol direct effect suppresses precipitation in all three cases but does not overturn the direction of precipitation changes by the aerosol indirect effect. Cloud fraction exhibits much smaller sensitivity (typically less than 2%) to aerosol perturbations than the cloud microphysics, and the responses vary with aerosol concentrations and cloud regimes. The surface shortwave radiation shows a monotonic decrease by increasing aerosols, while the magnitude of the decrease depends on the cloud type. Surface temperature changes closely follow the modulation of the surface radiation fluxes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Light Transfers Through a Koch Shape Cloud

Abstract Modeling radiative transfer in a 3D cloudy atmosphere is critical to climate projections. A recently developed fast 3D radiation parameterization scheme gains some success in quantifying horizontal radiative transfer through cloud sides using cloud area fraction. Based on 3D Monte Carlo simulations of radiative transfer through an idealized single‐layer cloud with Koch‐shaped fractal geometry edges, here we show that radiative energy transport through cloud sides correlates more significantly with cloud area fraction than with cloud perimeter length. The results exemplify the importance of accounting for the horizontal radiative energy exchanges between cloud‐free and cloudy regions with cloud area fraction. Results from additional sensitivity simulations show that increased cloud vertical extent often enhances cloud‐side sunlight leak more significantly than cloud‐side sunlight interception. At low sun elevations, cloud‐side sunlight interception is enhanced more than cloud‐side sunlight leak does with the increase of cloud mass.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of Ice Number Concentration on the Evolution of Boundary Layer Clouds During Arctic Marine Cold‐Air Outbreaks

Abstract Marine cold‐air outbreaks (MCAOs) are crucial for Arctic Ocean heat loss, featuring convective cloud rolls that transition into convection cells downstream. Understanding factors controlling this transformation is the key for improving MCAO cloud representation in climate models. This study employs large‐eddy simulations to investigate how cloud ice number concentrations () affect cloud evolution using a case from the Cold‐Air Outbreaks in the Marine Boundary Layer Experiment (COMBLE) campaign. The simulations, performed in a Lagrangian framework following an air mass trajectory, are driven by ERA5 reanalysis data. Initially, all simulations produce similar cloud patterns, but higher leads to earlier breakup of cloud rolls. Between 4 and 10 hr, surface precipitation rates are similar across simulations, but precipitation initiates earlier, and the cloud‐base precipitation rates are higher when is higher. The stronger precipitation evaporation leads to increased stability of the boundary layer and reduced intensity of vertical mixing between the surface and cloud layer. An increased sink of cloud layer moisture via precipitation and decreased source through diminished vertical transport result in earlier cloud breakup in higher conditions. Simulations with different sea surface temperatures (SST) indicate that this cloud breakup mechanism remains valid for MCAOs of different strengths, although the cloud organization is more sensitive to SST changes in low environments. This work highlights the importance of accurate representations of ice processes in simulating MCAO clouds and suggests the need for observational constraints of ice nucleating particles and over the mixed‐phase cloud regimes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Framework for idealized climate simulations with spatiotemporal stochastic clouds and planetary-scale circulations

In climate predictions, clouds are the leading source of uncertainty. This is partly because, to simulate the fluid dynamics of climate over the entire globe, a large grid spacing must be used, so clouds are a subgrid-scale parametrization rather than a resolved feature. Here, a framework is investigated with finer grid spacing of O(1) or O(10)km so that some clouds are not subgrid-scale; instead, clouds evolve on the numerical grid. This cloud evolution is achieved using stochastic modeling. Hence, the framework is idealized in the sense that the full fluid dynamics of cloud circulations is still not resolved, and simplified vertical structures are used. Nevertheless, the fluid dynamics model includes evolving clouds that interactively adjust in size, shape, lifetime, and regional coverage. In addition, different cloud types are included with different roles in the climate system, including deep convective clouds and also boundary-layer clouds such as shallow cumulus and stratocumulus clouds. Other basic aspects of the idealized climate system are planetary-scale circulations (e.g., Walker circulation) and radiation. With these ingredients (evolving clouds, planetary-scale circulations, and radiation), the framework has the potential for idealized investigations of climate change with interactive cloud–radiative feedback of individual clouds. Here, the formulation of the model equations is presented, and numerical simulations are shown to illustrate the model dynamics and climate change.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Characteristic Atmospheric Radiative Heating Rate Profiles in Arctic Clouds as Observed at Barrow, Alaska

Abstract A 2-yr cloud microphysical property dataset derived from ground-based remote sensors at the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement site near Barrow, Alaska, was used as input into a radiative transfer model to compute radiative heating rate (RHR) profiles in the atmosphere. Both the longwave (LW; 5–100 μm) and shortwave (SW; 0.2–5 μm) RHR profiles show significant month-to-month variability because of seasonal dependence in the vertical profiles of cloud liquid and ice water contents, with additional contributions from the seasonal dependencies of solar zenith angle, water vapor amount, and temperature. The LW and SW RHR profiles were binned to provide characteristic profiles as a function of cloud type and liquid water path (LWP). Single-layer liquid-only clouds are shown to have larger (10–30 K day−1) LW radiative cooling rates at the top of the cloud layer than single-layer mixed-phase clouds; this is due primarily to differences in the vertical distribution of liquid water between the two classes. However, differences in SW RHR profiles at the top of these two classes of clouds are less than 3 K day−1. The absolute value of the RHR in single-layer ice-only clouds is an order of magnitude smaller than in liquid-bearing clouds. Furthermore, for double-layer cloud systems, the phase and condensed water path of the upper cloud strongly modulate the radiative cooling both at the top and within the lower-level cloud. While sensitivity to cloud overlap and phase has been shown previously, the characteristic RHR profiles are markedly different between the different cloud classifications.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Evaluating the Lagrangian Evolution of Subtropical Low Clouds in GCMs Using Observations: Mean Evolution, Time Scales, and Responses to Predictors

In this work, a Lagrangian framework is developed to show the daily-scale time evolution of low clouds over the eastern subtropical oceans. An identical framework is applied to two general circulation models (GCMs): the CAM5 and UKMET and a set of satellite observations. This approach follows thousands of parcels as they advect downwind in the subtropical trade winds, comparing cloud evolution in time and space. This study tracks cloud cover, in-cloud liquid water path (CLWP), droplet concentration $N_d$, planetary boundary layer (PBL) depth, and rain rate as clouds transition from regions with predominately stratiform clouds to regions containing mostly trade cumulus. The two models generate fewer clouds with greater $N_d$ relative to observations. Models show stronger Lagrangian cloud cover decline and greater PBL deepening when compared with observations. In comparing frequency distributions of cloud variables over time, it is seen that models generate increasing frequencies of nearly clear conditions at the expense of overcast conditions, whereas observations show transitions from overcast to cloud amounts between 50% and 90%. Lagrangian decorrelation time scales ($\mathcal{e}$-folding time $\tau$) of cloud cover and CLWP are between 11 and 19 h for models and observations, although they are a bit shorter for models. A Lagrangian framework applied here resolves and compares the time evolution of cloud systems as they adjust to environmental perturbations in models and observations. Increasing subsidence in the overlying troposphere leads to declining cloud cover, CLWP, PBL depth, and rain rates in models and observations. Modeled cloud responses to other meteorological variables are less consistent with observations, suggesting a need for continuing mechanical improvements in GCMs.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

High concentrations of ice: Investigations using polarimetric radar observations combined with in situ measurements and cloud modeling (Final Report)

This DOE-funded joint project had the over-arching goal of understanding the reasons for observed size distributions of ice particles in cold clouds. Its approach involves the use of cloud models and field observations by radar and aircraft of real storms. The project addresses three major research objectives: (1) Utilize a novel polarimetric radar technique to retrieve size distributions and amounts of ice from radar data collected during the previous DOE ARM field campaigns; (2) Evaluate the results of ice microphysical retrievals using available in situ aircraft measurements and other remote sensors (e.g., vertically pointing cloud radars and wind profilers); (3) Improve the treatment of microphysical processes leading to cloud glaciation and ice multiplication in numerical cloud models. The study was performed by three research organizations: University of Oklahoma, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, and Lund University, Sweden. The Israel and Swedish partners were funded by the sub-awards from the University of Oklahoma. Cloud modeling studies have been performed by the research teams at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJ) and Lund University to identify the origins of high concentrations of cloud ice in areas of high ice water content (HIWC). The Hebrew University Cloud Model (HUCM) with full spectral bin microphysics and the Lund University aerosol-cloud (AC) model with a hybrid bin / bulk microphysics scheme complementing HUCM were utilized for simulations. Both research teams had particular focus on secondary ice production (SIP) as one of the possible sources of enhanced ice concentration. The HUJ group suggested a novel concept of ice multiplication during droplet freezing. It is assumed that splintering and droplet fragmentation during droplet freezing takes place because of dendritic growth within a supercooled drop. The resulting simulations of SIP generated small ice in concentrations exceeding hundreds per liter similar to what was observed in the HIWC regions of the tropical storms. The Lund team explored the SIP mechanisms such as breakup of ice particles due to ice-ice collisions and ice sublimation that are expected to dominate the continental storms. They also quantified the impact of homogeneous nucleation of cloud droplets on the total number concentration of ice at very low temperatures near the tops of the clouds. Additionally, the Lund AC model is able to simulate the effect of aerosols of various types (including biological) on the cloud life cycle and the corresponding ice production. The HUCM / AC model was used to simulate one of the “golden” cases of the DOE MC3E campaign on 20 May 2011. The model output was converted into the fields of polarimetric radar variables using the polarimetric radar forward operator developed at the University of Oklahoma and compared with radar observations and in situ microphysical measurements onboard research aircraft. It was demonstrated that specific differential phase KDP is the best radar parameter to identify the HIWC areas and quantify the corresponding ice parameters. For the first time, the shape of the vertical profile of KDP was realistically reproduced by the cloud model with the KDP maximum in the dendritic growth layer (DGL) centered at the -15°C isotherm. The University of Oklahoma team has developed a methodology for polarimetric radar retrievals of such microphysical parameters of ice as ice water content (IWC), mean volume diameter (Dm), and total number concentration (Nt) of ice particles. These retrievals have been validated using in situ aircraft measurements during 6 field campaigns and proved to be quite robust and reliable. This allowed to build the first climatology of the vertical profiles of polarimetric radar variables and retrieved microphysical parameters for the three types of weather systems: continental MCSs, maritime MCSs, and tropical cyclones / hurricanes (Hu and Ryzhkov 2022). The data were collected by a multitude of the WSR-88D radars in 13 continental and 10 maritime MCSs and 11 landfalling hurricanes. The HIWC areas were identified within the examined storms and the corresponding “HIWC statistics” was compared with the “background” one without HIWC. An overarching conclusion of the study is that maritime tropical storms (MCSs and hurricanes) are characterized by smaller size ice in higher concentration compared to the continental MCSs. High ice water content in the HIWC areas is primarily caused by a strong jump in a number concentration of ice particles rather than the increase of their size compared to the “background” environment. This may point to the homogeneous nucleation of excessive amounts of supercooled droplets and / or secondary ice production as the possible origins of HIWC. Such a climatology provides a good observational reference for the modelers to evaluate the performance of their models. As an example, the in-depth analysis of the 20 May 2011 MC3E case shows that the advanced cloud models developed in the course of this study still tend to underestimate the number concentration of ice in the HIWC areas although they succeed in reproducing realistically looking vertical profiles of IWC and Nt. The results of the project research are summarized in 13 journal papers.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Influence of covariance of aerosol and meteorology on co-located precipitating and non-precipitating clouds over the Indo-Gangetic Plain

Aerosol–cloud–precipitation interaction (ACPI) plays a pivotal role in the global and regional water cycle and the earth's energy budget; however, it remains highly uncertain due to the different underlying physical mechanisms. Therefore, this study aims to systematically analyze the effects of aerosols and meteorological factors on ACPI in the co-located precipitating clouds (PCs) and non-precipitating clouds (NPCs) in winter and summer seasons by employing the long-term (2001–2021) retrievals from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) coupled with the National Center for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-II datasets over the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). The results exhibit a decadal increase in aerosol optical depth (AOD) over Lahore (5.2 %), Delhi (9 %), Kanpur (10.7 %), and Gandhi College (22.7 %) and a decrease over Karachi (-1.9 %) and Jaipur (-0.5 %). The most stable meteorology with high values of lower-tropospheric stability (LTS) is found in both seasons over Karachi. In the summer season, the occurrence frequency of clouds is high (74 %) over Gandhi College, 60 % of which are PCs. Conversely, the lowest number of PCs is found over Karachi. Similarly, in the winter season, the frequency of cloud occurrence is low over Karachi and high over Lahore and Gandhi College. The analysis of cloud top pressure (CTP) and cloud optical thickness (COT) indicates high values of cloud fraction (CF) for thick and high-level clouds over all study areas except Karachi. The microphysical properties such as cloud effective radius (CER) and cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) bear high values (CER ≳ 15 µm and CDNC ≳ 50 cm -3 ) for both NPCs and PCs in summer. The AOD–CER correlation is good (weak) for PCs (NPCs) in winter. Similarly, the sensitivity value of the first indirect effect (FIE) is high (ranging from 0.2 ± 0.13 to 0.3 ± 0.01 in winter and from 0.19 ± 0.03 to 0.32 ± 0.05 in summer) for PCs and low for NPCs. The sensitivity value for the second indirect effect (SIE) is relatively higher (such as 0.6 ± 0.14 in winter and 0.4 ± 0.04 in summer) than FIE. Sensitivity values of the aerosol-cloud interaction (ACI) are low (i.e., -0.06 ± 0.09) for PCs in summer. Furthermore, the precipitation rate (PR) exhibits high values in the summer season, primarily due to the significant contribution from optically thick clouds with lower CDNC (≲ 50 cm -3 ) and larger CER and the intermediate contribution from optically thick clouds with higher CDNC ( ≳ 50 cm -3 ).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of four ground-based retrievals of cloud droplet number concentration in marine stratocumulus with aircraft in situ measurements

Abstract. Cloud droplet number concentration (Nd) is crucial for understanding aerosol–cloud interactions (ACI) and associated radiative effects. We present evaluations of four ground-based Nd retrievals based on comprehensive datasets from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in the Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. The Nd retrieval methods use ARM ENA observatory ground-based remote sensing observations from a micropulse lidar, Raman lidar, cloud radar, and the ARM NDROP (Droplet Number Concentration) value-added product (VAP), all of which also retrieve cloud effective radius (re). The retrievals are compared against aircraft measurements from the fast cloud droplet probe (FCDP) and the cloud and aerosol spectrometer (CAS) obtained from low-level marine boundary layer clouds on 12 flight days during summer and winter seasons. Additionally, the in situ measurements are used to validate the assumptions and characterizations used in the retrieval algorithms. Statistical comparisons of the probability distribution function (PDF) of the Nd and cloud re retrievals with aircraft measurements demonstrate that these retrievals align well with in situ measurements for overcast clouds, but they may substantially differ for broken clouds or clouds with low liquid water path (LWP). The retrievals are applied to 4 years of ground-based remote sensing measurements of overcast marine boundary layer clouds at the ARM ENA observatory to find that Nd (re) values exhibit seasonal variations, with higher (lower) values during the summer season and lower (higher) values during the winter season. The ensemble of various retrievals using different measurements and retrieval algorithms such as those in this paper can help to quantify Nd retrieval uncertainties and identify reliable Nd retrieval scenarios. Of the retrieval methods, we recommend using the micropulse lidar-based method. This method has good agreement with in situ measurements, less sensitivity to issues arising from precipitation and low cloud LWP and/or optical depth, and broad applicability by functioning for both daytime and nighttime conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Understanding Changes in Cloud Simulations from E3SM Version 1 to Version 2

This study documents clouds simulated by the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) version 2 (E3SMv2) and attempts to understand what causes the model behavior change in clouds relative to E3SMv1. This is done by analyzing the last 30-year (1985–2014) data from the 165-year historical simulations using E3SMv1 and v2 and four sensitivity tests to isolate the impact of changes in model parameter choices in its turbulence, shallow convection, and cloud macrophysics parameterization (CLUBB), microphysical parameterization (MG2), and deep convection scheme (ZM), as well as model physics changes in convective triggering. It is shown that E3SMv2 significantly improves the simulation of subtropical coastal stratocumulus clouds (Sc) and clouds with optical depth larger than 3.6 over the stratocumulus to cumulus transition regimes, where Shortwave Cloud Radiative Effect (SWCRE) is also improved, and the Southern Ocean (SO) while seeing an overall slight degradation in low clouds over other tropical and subtropical oceans. The better performance in E3SMv1 over those regions is partially due to error compensation between its simulated optically thin and intermediate low clouds for which E3SMv2 actually improves simulation of optically intermediate low clouds. Sensitivity tests indicate that the changes in low clouds are primarily due to the tuning made in CLUBB. The impact of the ZM tuning is mainly on optically intermediate and thick high clouds, contributing to improved SWCRE and Longwave Cloud Radiative Effect (LWCRE). The impact of the MG2 tuning and the new convective trigger is primarily on the high latitudes and the Southern Ocean (SO). They have a relatively smaller impact on clouds than do the CLUBB and ZM tunings. This study offers additional insights about clouds simulated in E3SMv2 by utilizing multiple data sets and the COSP diagnostic tool as well as through sensitivity tests. The improved understanding will benefit the future E3SM developments.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of Four Ground-based Retrievals of Cloud Droplet Number Concentration in Marine Stratocumulus with Aircraft In Situ Measurements

Cloud droplet number concentration (N d ) is crucial for understanding aerosol-cloud interactions (ACI) and associated radiative effects. We present evaluations of four ground-based N d retrievals based on comprehensive datasets from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM) Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in the Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. The N d retrieval methods use ARM ENA observatory ground-based remote sensing observations from a Micropulse lidar, Raman lidar, cloud radar, and the ARM NDROP Value-added Product (VAP), all of which also retrieve cloud effective radius (r e ). The retrievals are compared against aircraft measurements from the Fast-Cloud Droplet Probe (FCDP) and the Cloud and Aerosol Spectrometer (CAS) obtained from low-level marine boundary layer clouds on 12 flight days during summer and winter seasons. Additionally, the in situ measurements are used to validate the assumptions and characterizations used in the retrieval algorithms. Statistical comparisons of the probability distribution function (PDF) of the N d and cloud r e retrievals with aircraft measurements demonstrate that these retrievals align well with in situ measurements for overcast clouds, but they may substantially differ for broken clouds or clouds with low liquid water path (LWP). The retrievals are applied to four years of ground-based remote sensing measurements of overcast marine boundary layer clouds at the ARM ENA observatory to find that N d (r e ) values exhibit seasonal variations, with higher (lower) values during the summer season and lower (higher) values during the winter season. The ensemble of various retrievals using different measurements and retrieval algorithms such as those in this paper can help to quantify N d retrieval uncertainties and identify reliable N d retrieval scenarios. Of the retrieval methods, we recommend using the using the Micropulse lidar-based method given its good agreement with in situ measurements, it has less sensitivity to issues arising from precipitation and low cloud LWP/optical depth, and it has broad applicability by functioning for both day and nighttime conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1980

The effect of clouds on the earth's solar and infrared radiation budgets

The effect of global cloudiness on the solar and infrared components of the earth's radiation balance is studied in general circulation model experiments. A wintertime simulation is conducted in which the cloud radiative transfer calculations use realistic cloud optical properties and are fully interactive with model-generated cloudiness. This simulation is compared to others in which the clouds are alternatively non-interactive with respect to the solar or thermal radiation calculations. Other cloud processes (formation, latent heat release, precipitation, vertical mixing) were accurately simulated in these experiments. It is concluded that on a global basis clouds increase the global radiation balance by 40 W/sq m by absorbing longwave radiation, but decrease it by 56 W/sq m by reflecting solar radiation to space. The net cloud effect is therefore a reduction of the radiation balance by 16 W/sq m, and is dominated by the cloud albedo effect. Changes in cloud frequency and distribution and in atmospheric and land temperatures are also reported for the control and for the non-interactive simulations. In general, removal of the clouds' infrared absorption cools the atmosphere and causes additional cloudiness to occur, while removal of the clouds' solar radiative properties warms the atmosphere and causes fewer clouds to form. It is suggested that layered clouds and convective clouds over water enter the climate system as positive feedback components, while convective clouds over land enter as negative components.

Herman, G. F.↗
NASA NTRS1989

Reflected fluxes for broken clouds over a Lambertian surface

Reflected fluxes are calculated for broken cloudiness (i.e., nonplane parallel) as a function of cloud cover, cloud optical depth, solar zenith angle and surface albedo. These calculations extend previous results for broken cloud reflected fluxes over a black surface. The present study demonstrates that not only radiances but also radiative fluxes over high albedo surfaces may be decreased by the presence of broken cloudiness. Conventional wisdom states that cloud radiances (brightnesses) are always greater than the background. While most cloud retrieval schemes are built around this assumption, it is incorrect for clouds over high albedo surfaces such as found in polar regions. However, the most startling and counterintuitive conclusion of this study is that nonabsorbing finite clouds over a highly reflecting surface will decrease the system albedo. As a result, surface absorption is increased, the result of multiple scattering between surface and cloud layer, controlled by cloud morphology and cloud optical thickness. A simple parameterization of the effects of cloud contamination upon retrieved albedo is given in terms of solar zenith angle, cloud optical depth, surface albedo, cloud cover, and plane-parallel cloud albedo. In this way, the effects of broken cloudiness are modeled in terms of easily computed plane-parallel values.

Welch, Ronald M.↗
NASA NTRS1990

ER-2 lidar measurements of stratocumulus cloud top structure on July 14, 1987

On July 14, 1987 NASA's ER-2 high altitude aircraft flew a mission to measure the structure of stratocumulus clouds off the coast of California. A flight pattern was executed so that the two-dimensional variability of the clouds could be detected. The technique of analysis of the lidar data to measure cloud tops follows. First each signal is searched for its maximum in return strength. This maximum is caused by scattering of the laser light off cloud particles or from the ocean surface. Next the variance of the signal return above the level of maximum backscatter is determined. Cloud top is assigned to a level (above the level of maximum backscatter) where the backscatter exceeds the average variance. This two-step process is necessary because the level of maximum backscatter does not correspond to the cloud top. Ocean surface returns are easily separated from cloud returns in this process, described in detail by Boers, Spinhirne, and Hart (1988). Analysis of the data so far has shown that there were very few breaks in the clouds. Furthermore the layer top was very flat with local oscillations not exceeding 30 m. Such small cloud top variations are still well within the range of detectability, because the precision of this technique of cloud top detection has previously been established to be 13 to 15 m. Data are presently being analyzed to compute cloud top distributions and fractional cloudiness. The aim of this research is to relate the fractional cloudiness to the mean thermodynamic structure of the boundary layer. Researchers plan to compute spectral scales of the cloud top variability in two dimensions to determine the orientation of the clouds with respect to the mean wind. Furthermore the lidar derived cloud top distribution will be used in the computation of the thermodynamic and radiation budget of the boundary layer.

Boers, Reinout↗
NASA NTRS1992

Lidar Studies of Extinction in Clouds in the ECLIPS Project

The Experimental Cloud Lidar Pilot Study (ECLIPS) project has now had two active phases in 1989 and 1991. A number of laboratories around the world have taken part in the study. The observations have yielded new data on cloud height and structure, and have yielded some useful new information on the retrieval of cloud optical properties, together with the uncertainties involved. Clouds have a major impact on the climate of the earth. They have the effect of reducing the mean surface temperature from 30 C for a cloudless planet to a value of about 15 C for present cloud conditions. However, it is not at all certain how clouds would react to a change in the planetary temperature in the event of climate change due to a radiative forcing from greenhouse gases. Clouds both reflect out sunlight (negative feedback) and enhance the greenhouse effect (positive feedback), but the ultimate sign of cloud feedback is unknown. Because of these uncertainties, campaigns to study clouds intensely were initiated. The International Satellite Cloud Climatology (ISCPP) and the FIRE Campaigns (cirrus and stratocumulus) are examples. The ECLIPS was set up similarly to the above experiments to obtain information specifically on cloud base, but also cloud top (where possible), optical properties, and cloud structure. ECLIPS was designed to allow as many laboratories as possible globally to take part to get the largest range of clouds. It involves observations with elastic backscatter lidar, supported by infrared fluxes at the ground and radiosonde data, as basic instrumentation. More complex experiments using beam filter radiometers, solar pyranometers, and satellite data and often associated with other campaigns were also encouraged to join ECLIPS. Two periods for observation were chosen, Sep. - Dec. 1989 and Apr. - Jul. 1992 into which investigators were requested to fit 30 days of observations. These would be either continuous, or arranged to coincide with NOAA satellite overpasses to obtain AVHRR data. The distribution of the ECLIPS international effort as in 1991 is shown. The main gaps in the global distribution are in the tropics and the Southern Hemisphere.

Martin, C.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Airborne lidar and radiometric observations of PBL- and low clouds

Boundary layer- and low altitude clouds over open ocean and continent areas have been studied during several field campaigns since mid-1990 using the French airborne backscatter lidar LEANDRE in conjunction with on-board IR and visible radiometers. LEANDRE is an automatic system, and a modification of the instrumental parameters, when airborne, is computer controlled through an operator keyboard. The vertical range squared lidar signals and instrument status are displayed in real time on two dedicated monitors. The lidar is used either down- or up-looking while the aircraft is flying above or below clouds. A switching of the viewing configuration takes about a minute. The lidar measurements provide a high resolution description of cloud morphology and holes in cloud layers. The flights were conducted during various meteorological conditions on single or multilayer stratocumulus and cumulus decks. Analysis on a single shot basis of cloud top (or bottom) altitude and a plot of the corresponding histogram allows one to determine a probability density function (PDF). The preliminary results show the PDFs for cloud top are not Gaussian and symmetric about the mean value. The skewness varies with atmospheric conditions. An example of results recorded over the Atlantic ocean near Biarritz is displayed, showing: (1) the range squared lidar signals as a function of time (here 100 s corresponds to about 8 km, 60 shots are averaged on horizontal); the Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) - up to 600 m - is observed at the beginning of the leg as well as on surface returns, giving an indication of the porosity; (2) the cloud top altitude variation between 2.4 to 2.8 km during the 150 to 320 s section; and (3) the corresponding PDF. Similar results are obtained on stratocumulus over land. Single shot measurements can be used also to determine an optical porosity at a small scale as well as a fractional cloudiness at a larger scale. A comparison of cloud top altitude retrieved from lidar and narrowbeam IR radiometer is conducted to study the scale integration problem. A good agreement within less than 100 m relies on spatial uniformity and an optically thick layer. In the presence of holes, a discrepancy is observed. This is illustrated in figure 2, displaying as a function of time (1) the lidar signals; (2) the target temperature (either clouds or sea surface) retreived from a narrowbeam IR radiometer, 17 C is the sea surface temperature on that day; and (3) the visible flux, linked to cloud albedo, measured by a pyranometer. In preparation of ASTEX, down- and up-looking measurements where conducted on stratocumulus clouds over the Atlantic Ocean near Quimper in Brittany. Depending on the flight pattern orientation with respect to the wind, the top and bottom cloud morphologies are different. Preliminary results are given on cloud morphology, cloud top PDFs, optical porosity, fractional cloudiness, and comparison of lidar and radiometric measurements.

Flamant, P. H.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Global patterns of cloud optical thickness variation with temperature

The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project dataset is used to correlate variations of cloud optical thickness and cloud temperature in today's atmosphere. The analysis focuses on low clouds in order to limit the importance of changes in cloud vertical extent, particle size, and water phase. Coherent patterns of change are observed on several time and space scales. On the planetary scale, clouds in colder, higher latitudes are found to be optically thicker than clouds in warmer, lower latitudes. On the seasonal scale, winter clouds are, for the most part, optically thicker than summer clouds. The logarithmic derivative of cloud optical thickness with temperature is used to describe the sign and magnitude of the optical thickness-temperature correlation. The seasonal, latitudinal, and day-to-day variations of this relation are examined for Northern Hemisphere clouds in 1984. In cold continental clouds, optical thickness increases with temperature, consistent with the temperature variation of the adiabatic cloud water content. In warm continental and in almost all maritime clouds, however, optical thickness decreases with temperature.

Tselioudis, George↗
NASA NTRS1994

The interpretation of remotely sensed cloud properties from a model paramterization perspective

A study has been made of the relationship between mean cloud radiative properties and cloud fraction in stratocumulus cloud systems. The analysis is of several Land Resources Satellite System (LANDSAT) images and three hourly International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) C-1 data during daylight hours for two grid boxes covering an area typical of a general circulation model (GCM) grid increment. Cloud properties were inferred from the LANDSAT images using two thresholds and several pixel resolutions ranging from roughly 0.0625 km to 8 km. At the finest resolution, the analysis shows that mean cloud optical depth (or liquid water path) increases somewhat with increasing cloud fraction up to 20% cloud coverage. More striking, however, is the lack of correlation between the two quantities for cloud fractions between roughly 0.2 and 0.8. When the scene is essentially overcast, the mean cloud optical tends to be higher. Coarse resolution LANDSAT analysis and the ISCCP 8-km data show lack of correlation between mean cloud optical depth and cloud fraction for coverage less than about 90%. This study shows that there is perhaps a local mean liquid water path (LWP) associated with partly cloudy areas of stratocumulus clouds. A method has been suggested to use this property to construct the cloud fraction paramterization in a GCM when the model computes a grid-box-mean LWP.

HARSHVARDHAN↗