Biological instrumentation for the Viking 1975 mission to Mars
Biological instrumentation and soil sampler aboard Viking lander for 1975 mission to Mars
Klein, H. P.↗
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High Capacity Communications From Martian Distances: Spacecraft Link Design Analysis - Part 1
High capacity space communications has been a desire for Human Exploration and Science missions. Current Mars missions operate at data rates of 120 kbps for telemetry downlink and it is desirable to study high rate communication links in the range of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps data rates from Martian distances. This paper will present some assumed scenarios along with link design assumptions and link analysis for high capacity communications from Mars. The paper will focus on RF subsystems namely antenna and power for the downlink communication from a relay orbiter at Mars. The relay orbiter will communicate with the low orbit spacecrafts at Mars or any Martian surface elements such as robots, and relay the data back to the ground networks on Earth. The study will dive into the spacecraft downlink system design and communication link analysis between the relay orbiter and ground network on Earth for data rates ranging from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps based on the assumed scenarios and link assumptions. With high rate links at larger distances, there will be a significant impact on the antenna and power requirements and the link design will make an attempt to minimize the mass of the RF subsystem on the spacecraft. The results of this study will be presented for three data rates 1 Gbps, 500 Mbps and 100 Mbps at maximum Mars to Earth distance of 2.67AU. The design will use a Ka-band downlink with 90% link availability, along with various ground network G/T assumptions and possible bandwidth efficient modulations. The paper will conclude with what types of high rate communication links are feasible from Martian distances and also identify a range of requirements for antenna and power technologies for these high capacity communications from Mars.
Ka-Band communications↗
Orbiters, CubeSats, and radio telescopes, oh my; entry, descent, and landing communications for the 2018 InSight Mars lander mission
The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy, and Heat Transport (InSight) Mars lander mission was launched on May 5th, 2018 and its November 26, 2018 entry, descent, and landing sequence was observed by no less than five separate assets. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) in orbit about Mars, the two Mars Cube One (MarCO) probes flying by, and two radio telescopes back on Earth were all used for this critical event communication coverage. These many paths of communication were enabled via the InSight launch/arrival strategy design, MRO orbital phasing selection, and MarCO trajectory design
Wagner, Sean↗
Sample Materials Considerations for Curating and Processing Pristine MSR Samples
The perseverance rover is collecting and caching samples of Mars as part of the Mars 2020 mission, which represents the first leg of a multi-mission Mars Sample Return Campaign. The MSR Campaign is an international partnership that will result in delivery of the first martian samples to Earth that were not delivered through meteoritic infall. All meteorites, regardless of how they were handled from recovery to curation, have experienced uncontrolled entry and exposure to the terrestrial environment. Whilst meteorite deliveries are serendipitous, they are also unplanned events that require reactionary responses for recovery and curation. However, with the direct return of pristine astromaterials from another body, we are afforded the ability to design a facility in advance of sample delivery to keep those samples in a pristine (i.e., as returned) state for an indefinite period of time. Given that the curation and processing infrastructure needs to be made out of something, it is important to choose materials for the pristine curation environment that will optimize between the need to effectively process samples and the need to minimize contamination of the samples. The Johnson Space Center (JSC) has an optimized list of materials that have been used in previous sample return missions that includes 304/316 Stainless Steel, Teflon, and T6061 Aluminum (1). This set of materials are compatible with inorganic, organic, and biological cleanliness requirements and protocols. Furthermore, only these materials are permitted to come in contact with pristine samples. We note that JSC uses Neoprene and Hypalon for the gloves on their gloveboxes, but the glove material never comes in direct contact with the samples, only the approved materials. The MSR sample tubes will be made of Ti, so Ti may be an acceptable material for making tools, but the minor and trace element abundances of 304 and 316 stainless steel are well known and do not inhibit scientific investigations of metals, including HSE (2). More work is needed to determine whether the same is true for Ti alloys. In addition to defining the materials in the pristine environment, one must also choose whether the pristine environment will be under vacuum or under a specific atmospheric composition and pressure. Although JAXA has successfully implemented pristine curation vacuum chambers for their Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 samples (3), a vacuum environment is not appropriate for martian samples because it may drive deliquescence of mineral phases in the samples that are sensitive to pressure and relative humidity (4). Consequently, the pristine environment for the martian samples should be under an inert gas. It will be crucial to minimize the number of gases that come into direct contact with samples and these gases will need to be high purity and consistent throughout the pristine isolators. Samples at JSC are stored under high purity gaseous nitrogen (1). Dry N2 gas has not been a problem for N isotope studies for high-T release phases, but an additional inert atmosphere like Ar may be needed for samples where there is a particular concern about low-T release of N from bulk sample analysis. References: (1) McCubbin FM, et al. (2019) Space Science Reviews, 215, 1-81. (2) Day JMD, et al. (2018) Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 53:1283-1291. (3) Yada, T., et al., (2014). Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 49, 135-153. (4) Tosca NJ, et al. (2021). Astrobiology, in press, doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0115.
F M McCubbin↗
Human Mars Surface Mission Surface Power Impacts on Timeline and Traverse Capabilities
The National Aeronautics and Aerospace Administration’s (NASA) Mars Architecture Team (MAT) developed a concept for power management operations to support a thirty-day, minimal infrastructure Mars surface mission. The surface elements in this minimal surface mission concept include three landers as platforms for surface operations, a crewed Mars ascent vehicle (MAV), an unpressurized rover, and a pressurized rover where the crew will live for the duration of the thirty-day mission. In this analysis the power system is a ten kilowatt fission power system, which has been selected for its resiliency to dust storms, and will provide power for all aspects of the surface mission including thermal management of propellant and electronic systems, communications, and battery recharge of mobile surface assets. Developing a power management plan with the consideration of the various elements and mission phases helps define the traverse and exploration capabilities for the crew in the pressurized rover. Also, considerations need to be made for the different power requirements for each phase of the surface mission including arrival, offload, surface exploration, launch preparation, and departure. The described analysis aims to achieve a balance of maintaining power to critical systems while enabling desired traverse and exploration range in the pressurized rover. Additionally, a few enhancing technologies were explored that could expand the power capability if the additional capacity is necessary in the future. This study is used as a baseline to understand the constraints on all aspects of the surface mission for a minimal surface infrastructure human Mars campaign if a ten-kilowatt fission surface power system is available on the surface.
Michael B. Chappell↗
Recent concepts in missions to Mars - Extraterrestrial processes
This paper presents some recent concepts in Mars Sample Return (MSR) missions that utilize extraterrestrial resources. The concepts examined include the power and energy needs of this mission. It is shown that solar energy is not especially attractive. Radioisotopic power generator and a Rankine cycle use are seen to be viable options. Quantitative estimates, taking into consideration state-of-the-art and projected technologies indicate that the power/energy per se is not critical to the mission - but reliability is. Hence, various modern options for the components of the power generation and utilization are discussed. The dramatic savings in Shuttle (or other) vehicle launches are quantitatively plotted. The basic system that is discussed here is the production of hydrocarbon (methane) fuel and oxygen from Martian atmosphere. For the simplest mission, it is seen that earth-carried methane burned with oxygen produced on site provides the best system.
Ramohalli, K. N.↗
Technologies for aerobraking
Aerobraking is one of the largest contributors to making both lunar and Mars missions affordable. The use of aerobraking/aeroassist over all-propulsive approaches saves as much as 60 percent of the initial mass required in LEO, thus reducing the number and size of earth-to-orbit launch vehicles. Lunar transfer vehicles, which will be used to transport personnel and materials from LEO to lunar outposts, will aerobrake into earth's atmosphere at aproximately 11 km/sec on return from the lunar surface. Current plans for both manned and robotic missions to Mars use aerocapture during arrival at Mars and at earth return. At Mars, the entry velocities will range from about 6 to 9.5 km/sec, and at earth the return velocity will be about 12.5 to 14 km/sec. In order to successfully design aerobrakes to withstand the aerodynamic forces and heating associated with these entry velocities, as well as to make them efficient, several critical technologies must be developed. These are vehicle concepts and configurations, aerothermodynamics, thermal protection system materials, and guidance, navigation, and control systems. This paper describes the status of each of these technologies and outlines what must be accomplished in each area to meet the requirements of the Space Exploration Initiative.
Cooper, David M.↗
Nuclear propulsion for space exploration
The results of some recent studies of the application of both nuclear electric and nuclear thermal propulsion systems in space exploration are presented. Issues that require further study and which have a significant effect on the propulsion system design and selection are identified. Attention is given to robotic missions, lunar piloted and cargo missions, and Mars missions.
Miller, Thomas J.↗
Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Test Facilities Subpanel
On 20 Jul. 1989, in commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, President George Bush proclaimed his vision for manned space exploration. He stated, 'First for the coming decade, for the 1990's, Space Station Freedom, the next critical step in our space endeavors. And next, for the new century, back to the Moon. Back to the future. And this time, back to stay. And then, a journey into tomorrow, a journey to another planet, a manned mission to Mars.' On 2 Nov. 1989, the President approved a national space policy reaffirming the long range goal of the civil space program: to 'expand human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system.' And on 11 May 1990, he specified the goal of landing Astronauts on Mars by 2019, the 50th anniversary of man's first steps on the Moon. To safely and ever permanently venture beyond near Earth environment as charged by the President, mankind must bring to bear extensive new technologies. These include heavy lift launch capability from Earth to low-Earth orbit, automated space rendezvous and docking of large masses, zero gravity countermeasures, and closed loop life support systems. One technology enhancing, and perhaps enabling, the piloted Mars missions is nuclear propulsion, with great benefits over chemical propulsion. Asserting the potential benefits of nuclear propulsion, NASA has sponsored workshops in Nuclear Electric Propulsion and Nuclear Thermal Propulsion and has initiated a tri-agency planning process to ensure that appropriate resources are engaged to meet this exciting technical challenge. At the core of this planning process, NASA, DOE, and DOD established six Nuclear Propulsion Technical Panels in 1991 to provide groundwork for a possible tri-agency Nuclear Propulsion Program and to address the President's vision by advocating an aggressive program in nuclear propulsion. To this end the Nuclear Electric Propulsion Technology Panel has focused it energies; this final report summarizes its endeavor and conclusions.
Allen, George C.↗
Optimizing interplanetary trajectories with deep space maneuvers
Analysis of interplanetary trajectories is a crucial area for both manned and unmanned missions of the Space Exploration Initiative. A deep space maneuver (DSM) can improve a trajectory in much the same way as a planetary swingby. However, instead of using a gravitational field to alter the trajectory, the on-board propulsion system of the spacecraft is used when the vehicle is not near a planet. The purpose is to develop an algorithm to determine where and when to use deep space maneuvers to reduce the cost of a trajectory. The approach taken to solve this problem uses primer vector theory in combination with a non-linear optimizing program to minimize Delta(V). A set of necessary conditions on the primer vector is shown to indicate whether a deep space maneuver will be beneficial. Deep space maneuvers are applied to a round trip mission to Mars to determine their effect on the launch opportunities. Other studies which were performed include cycler trajectories and Mars mission abort scenarios. It was found that the software developed was able to locate quickly DSM's which lower the total Delta(V) on these trajectories.
Navagh, John↗
Group collaboraion for Mars Rover mission operations
The group collaboration capability was developed for use in rover mission operations in the 2003 NASA Mars Exploration Rover mission.
rover operations collaboration sequence↗
Life on Mars: Past, Present, and Future
Mars has evidence for past liquid water, presence of an atmosphere with CO2 and N2, and potential for preservation of evidence of life. Composition of the Martian atmosphere is 95.3% Carbon dioxide, 2.7% Nitrogen, 1.6% Argon, 0.3-0.1% Water Vapor, 0.13% Oxygen, and 0.07% Carbon Monoxide. Current Mars missions include: Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter,
McKay, Chris↗
Preservation of Reduced Carbon on Mars: Implications for Understanding Habitability
Upcoming Mars missions (e.g., Mars Science Laboratory, ExoMars, Astrobiology Field Laboratory, and Mars Sample Return) will search for evidence of extant and fossil microbial habitats and the potential for future habitation. Understanding the distribution and composition of reduced carbon (or organic carbon) is critical for unraveling the Martian carbon cycle, potential for life, and possible biosignature record. Reduced carbon may be produced from biological, geochemical, or interstellar processes; however, evidence for reduced carbon on Mars is lacking with the exception of parts per billion of atmospheric methane. In contrast, abundant atmospheric carbon dioxide may reflect surface oxidation of reduced carbon and accumulation over geological timescales. This suggests that there is an undetected or lost pool of reduced carbon - a pool that may host molecular biosignatures, a characteristic of extant or extinct habitability. In this presentation, we will evaluate factors influencing the preservation potential for organic molecules in rocks on Earth and Martian. We,draw examples from organic molecules in sulfates, basalts, and ancient shales from Mars-analog settings to show how the distribution of organics and their structural patterns will aid Mars habitability studies.
Conrad, Pamela↗
Integrated Human-in-the-Loop Ground Testing - Value, History, and the Future
Systems for very long-duration human missions to Mars will be designed to operate reliably for many years and many of these systems will never be returned to Earth. The need for high reliability is driven by the requirement for safe functioning of remote, long-duration crewed systems and also by unsympathetic abort scenarios. Abort from a Mars mission could be as long as 450 days to return to Earth. The key to developing a human-in-the-loop architecture is a development process that allows for a logical sequence of validating successful development in a stepwise manner, with assessment of key performance parameters (KPPs) at each step; especially important are KPPs for technologies evaluated in a full systems context with human crews on Earth and on space platforms such as the ISS. This presentation will explore the implications of such an approach to technology development and validation including the roles of ground and space-based testing necessary to develop a highly reliable system for long duration human exploration missions. Historical development and systems testing from Mercury to the International Space Station (ISS) to ground testing will be reviewed. Current work as well as recommendations for future work will be described.
Henninger, Donald L.↗
Comparison of Human Exploration Architecture and Campaign Approaches
As part of an overall focus on space exploration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) continues to evaluate potential approaches for sending humans beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). In addition, various external organizations are studying options for beyond LEO exploration. Recent studies include NASA's Evolvable Mars Campaign and Design Reference Architecture (DRA) 5.0, JPL's Minimal Mars Architecture; the Inspiration Mars mission; the Mars One campaign; and the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). Each of these potential exploration constructs applies unique methods, architectures, and philosophies for human exploration. It is beneficial to compare potential approaches in order to better understand the range of options available for exploration. Since most of these studies were conducted independently, the approaches, ground rules, and assumptions used to conduct the analysis differ. In addition, the outputs and metrics presented for each construct differ substantially. This paper will describe the results of an effort to compare and contrast the results of these different studies under a common set of metrics. The paper will first present a summary of each of the proposed constructs, including a description of the overall approach and philosophy for exploration. Utilizing a common set of metrics for comparison, the paper will present the results of an evaluation of the potential benefits, critical challenges, and uncertainties associated with each construct. The analysis framework will include a detailed evaluation of key characteristics of each construct. These will include but are not limited to: a description of the technology and capability developments required to enable the construct and the uncertainties associated with these developments; an analysis of significant operational and programmatic risks associated with that construct; and an evaluation of the extent to which exploration is enabled by the construct, including the destinations visited and the exploration capabilities provided at those destinations. Based upon the comparison of constructs, the paper will identify trends and lessons learned across all of the candidate studies.
Goodliff, Kandyce↗
The Quest for Engineering Innovation at NASA's Marshall Space Flight (MSFC)
A recent NASA team, chartered to examine innovation within the Agency, captured the meaning of the word innovation as the "application of creative ideas to improve and generate value for the organization". The former NASA Administrator Charles Bolden shared his own thoughts about innovation in a memo with all employees that stated, "At NASA, we are dedicated to innovation, bold ideas, and excellence." Innovation turns out to be one of the major driving forces behind the work produced at NASA. It seems failure is often what has driven NASA to be more innovative. Fifty years ago, the Apollo 1 tragedy killed three astronauts when fire erupted in their command module. NASA had to bear the responsibility of such loss and at the same time work smarter in order to obtain the dream to reach the moon by the end of the 1960s. Through this circumstance, NASA engineers developed a revolutionary replacement for the combustible nylon astronaut suits so the Apollo program could continue. A material called Beta Cloth was born. This material was used to produce noncombustible space suits for all Apollo astronauts, enabling the United States to ultimately land 12 Americans on the moon. Eventually this material was used as the roof system in the Denver International Airport, showing relevance and applications of NASA innovations to real-world need. Innovative ideas are also driven by the need to accomplish NASA missions and to improve the way we produce our products. MSFC engineers are advancing technologies in additive manufacturing of liquid rocket engines in order to reduce the number of parts, design time, and the cost of the engines. NASA is working with academia to eliminate the need for miles of sensor cables by investigating innovations in wireless sensors. In order to enable future exploration missions to Mars, MSFC engineers are pursuing innovative approaches in diverse areas such as the use of ionic liquids for life support systems and composite cryogenic tanks, very low leakage valves to contain propulsion fluids, and natural, non-toxic inhibitors to eliminate the buildup of biofilms in the water systems planned for future crewed Mars missions. Although results are encouraging, we cannot rest on our past accomplishments. In order to overcome breathtaking technical challenges in space exploration, we must continue to promote a culture supporting growth, breakthroughs and disruptive innovations.
Turner, James E.↗
High Power Advanced Solar Electric Propulsion Development Under NASA's NextSTEP Project
Human missions to Mars will require next generation solar electric propulsion (SEP) systems that can operate at power levels of 300 kW or higher to efficiently transport crew and cargo. In the mid-2020s, NASA is planning to launch the Deep Space Gateway (DSG), which is a crew-tended habitat that will be placed in orbit around the Moon. NASA is developing 12.5 kW Hall thrusters for the DSG. In the late 2020s, the DSG will be followed by a second vehicle, called the Deep Space Transport (DST), which will simulate a crewed Mars mission in cislunar space. In parallel with the 12.5 kW thrusters for the DSG, NASA is initiating development of 100 kW thrusters for potential demonstration on the DST. In 2016, NASA issued a Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) Broad Agency Announcement to solicit proposals for development of high-power electric thrusters. The partnerships require at least 50 percent cost sharing by the companies. Three companies were selected for development activities lasting up to three years: Ad Astra, Aerojet Rocketdyne, and MSNW. Ad Astra is developing a Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR), Aerojet Rocketdyne is developing a Nested Hall Thruster (NHT), and MSNW is developing an Electrodeless Lorentz Force (ELF) plasma thruster. The primary goal of these activities is to operate the thrusters at 100 kW for 100 continuous hours in a vacuum chamber. In addition to the thrusters, the companies are developing Power Processing Units (PPUs), propellant feed systems, and thermal management systems. This presentation will describe the three activities, the progress they have made in achieving the primary testing goal, the technical challenges they have encountered, and discuss the importance of extensibility.
Moore, Chris↗