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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2022

S-band Network Analysis and Strategies for LEO Multi-CubeSat Science Missions

This paper presents the network architecture utilized at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) to support a mission set of five 6U CubeSats. These five CubeSats employ a multi-waveform Software Defined Radio (SDR) platform developed by Vulcan Wireless for use with NASA’s Space Relay (SR) and Direct to Earth (DTE) networks. The performance testing of the SDR is discussed via a comprehensive S-band and communication link analysis. The tested capabilities of the SDR and antenna components are reviewed in terms of the mission requirements for each CubeSat. Size Weight and Power (SWaP), required availability, and access times are discussed. The measured data from experimental compatibility testing is incorporated into detailed simulations of the CubeSat mission set to verify desired performance over the mission lifetime. The model is also used to investigate the impact of potential adverse effects on the communication links such as interference and weather conditions. This paper also reviews potential improvements from future technological advances and commercial partnerships. A collaborative investigation between GSFC and Oklahoma State University is presented in which a qualitative analysis of Hybrid RF/Optical communication strategies is performed. The data rate improvements of optical communication techniques are weighed against attitude control and science mission requirements for CubeSats, and network architectures/switching strategies are discussed. A separate analysis reviews the potential benefits of ground station partnerships, which aligns with NASA’s future goal to include commercial partners in its Earth and space network architectures, e.g. LunaNet.

Space networks↗
NASA NTRS2000

GCSS Cirrus Parcel Model Comparison Project

The Cirrus Parcel Model Comparison Project, a project of GCSS Working Group on Cirrus Cloud Systems (WG2), involves the systematic comparison of current models of ice crystal nucleation and growth for specified, typical, cirrus cloud environments. The goal of this project is to document and understand the factors resulting in significant inter-model differences. The intent is to foment research leading to model improvement and validation. In Phase 1 of the project reported here, simulated cirrus cloud microphysical properties are compared for situations of "warm" (-40 C) and "cold" (-60 C) cirrus subject to updrafts of 4, 20 and 100 cm/s, respectively. Five models participated. These models employ explicit microphysical schemes wherein the size distribution of each class of particles (aerosols and ice crystals) is resolved into bins. Simulations are made including both homogeneous and heterogeneous ice nucleation mechanisms. A single initial aerosol population of sulfuric acid particles is prescribed for all simulations. To isolate the treatment of the homogeneous freezing (of haze drops) nucleation process, the heterogeneous nucleation mechanism is disabled for a second parallel set of simulations. Qualitative agreement is found for the homogeneous-nucleation-only simulations, e.g., the number density of nucleated ice crystals increases with the strength of the prescribed updraft. However, non-negligible quantitative differences are found. Detailed analysis reveals that the homogeneous nucleation formulation, aerosol size, ice crystal growth rate (particularly the deposition coefficient), and water vapor uptake rate are critical components that lead to differences in predicted microphysics. Systematic bias exists between results based on a modified classical theory approach and models using an effective freezing temperature approach to the treatment of nucleation. Each approach is constrained by critical freezing data from laboratory studies, but each includes assumptions that can only be justified by further laboratory data. Consequently, it is not yet clear if the two approaches can be made consistent. Large haze particles may deviate considerably from equilibrium size in moderate to strong updrafts (20-100 cm/s) at -60 C when the commonly invoked equilibrium assumption is lifted. The resulting difference in particle-size-dependent solution concentration of haze particles may significantly affect the ice nucleation rate during the initial nucleation interval. The uptake rate for water vapor excess by ice crystals is another key component regulating the total number of nucleated ice crystals. This rate, the product of ice number concentration and ice crystal diffusional growth rate, which is sensitive to the deposition coefficient when ice particles are small, partially controls the peak nucleation rate achieved in an air parcel and the duration of the active nucleation time period. The effects of heterogeneous nucleation are most pronounced in weak updraft situations. Vapor competition by the nucleated (heterogeneous) ice crystals limits the achieved ice supersaturation and thus suppresses the contribution of homogeneous nucleation. Correspondingly, ice crystal number density is markedly reduced. Definitive laboratory and atmospheric benchmark data are needed for the heterogeneous nucleation process. Inter-model differences are correspondingly greater than in the case of the homogeneous nucleation process acting alone.

Lin, Ruei-Fong↗
NASA NTRS1989

Application of fracture mechanics and half-cycle theory to the prediction of fatigue life of aerospace structural components

The service life of aircraft structural components undergoing random stress cycling was analyzed by the application of fracture mechanics. The initial crack sizes at the critical stress points for the fatigue crack growth analysis were established through proof load tests. The fatigue crack growth rates for random stress cycles were calculated using the half-cycle method. A new equation was developed for calculating the number of remaining flights for the structural components. The number of remaining flights predicted by the new equation is much lower than that predicted by the conventional equation. This report describes the application of fracture mechanics and the half-cycle method to calculate the number of remaining flights for aircraft structural components.

Ko, William L.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Modeling and Optimization for Morphing Wing Concept Generation

This report consists of two major parts: 1) the approach to develop morphing wing weight equations, and 2) the approach to size morphing aircraft. Combined, these techniques allow the morphing aircraft to be sized with estimates of the morphing wing weight that are more credible than estimates currently available; aircraft sizing results prior to this study incorporated morphing wing weight estimates based on general heuristics for fixed-wing flaps (a comparable "morphing" component) but, in general, these results were unsubstantiated. This report will show that the method of morphing wing weight prediction does, in fact, drive the aircraft sizing code to different results and that accurate morphing wing weight estimates are essential to credible aircraft sizing results.

Skillen, Michael D.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Prediction of service life of aircraft structural components using the half-cycle method

The service life of aircraft structural components undergoing random stress cycling was analyzed by the application of fracture mechanics. The initial crack sizes at the critical stress points for the fatigue-crack growth analysis were established through proof load tests. The fatigue-crack growth rates for random stress cycles were calculated using the half-cycle method. A new equation was developed for calculating the number of remaining flights for the structural components. The number of remaining flights predicted by the new equation is much lower than that predicted by the conventional equation.

Ko, William L.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Photonic Integrated Circuits

Integrated photonics generally is the integration of multiple lithographically defined photonic and electronic components and devices (e.g. lasers, detectors, waveguides passive structures, modulators, electronic control and optical interconnects) on a single platform with nanometer-scale feature sizes. The development of photonic integrated circuits permits size, weight, power and cost reductions for spacecraft microprocessors, optical communication, processor buses, advanced data processing, and integrated optic science instrument optical systems, subsystems and components. This is particularly critical for small spacecraft platforms. We will give an overview of some NASA applications for integrated photonics.

Laser↗
NASA NTRS2016

Photonic Integrated Circuits

Integrated photonics generally is the integration of multiple lithographically defined photonic and electronic components and devices (e.g. lasers, detectors, waveguides passive structures, modulators, electronic control and optical interconnects) on a single platform with nanometer-scale feature sizes. The development of photonic integrated circuits permits size, weight, power and cost reductions for spacecraft microprocessors, optical communication, processor buses, advanced data processing, and integrated optic science instrument optical systems, subsystems and components. This is particularly critical for small spacecraft platforms. We will give an overview of some NASA applications for integrated photonics.

laser↗
NASA NTRS1976

K/Ar dating of lunar soils. II

An attempt is made to identify those K/Ar techniques which extract the most reliable chronological information from lunar soils and to define the situations in which the best data are obtainable. Results are presented for determinations of the exposure and K/Ar ages of five lunar soil samples, which were performed by applying correlation techniques for a two-component argon structure to stepwise-heated and neutron-irradiated aliquots of grain-sized separates. It is found that ages deduced from Ar-40/surface-correlated Ar-36 vs K-40/surface-correlated Ar-36 and analogous plots of data from grain-sized separates appear to be the best available K/Ar ages of submature to mature lunar soils, that ages deduced from Ar-40 vs Ar-36 and analogous plots which assume a uniform K content can be significantly in error, and that stepwise-heating (Ar-40)-(Ar-39) experiments yield useful information only for simple immature soils where the K-Ar systematics are dominated by a single component.

Alexander, E. C., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Coordination in Large Collectives

Finding the subset of a set of imperfect devices (e.g., nano or micro devices) that results in the best aggregate device is a challenging problem. It is an abstraction of what will likely be a major difficulty in designing and controlling systems of nano or micro-scale components, particularly when a large fraction of those components may be unreliable. Rather than approaching this as a passive search problem, we transform the problem into one of coordination in a complex system by imbuing each device with simple decision making ability. In doing so we face the challenge of determining what each component should attempt to do so that the collective behavior solves the overall problem. Furthermore, in this padicular instance, we face problems of scaling (number of components in the thousands to tens of thousands), observability (components have limited sensing capabilities), and reliability (the components are faulty). We present an approach based on deriving component goals that are aligned with the overall system goal (e.g., forming best aggregate device), and can be computed using information readily (e.g., locally) available to the components. Then, each component in such a collective uses a simple reinforcement learning algorithm to selfishly pursue its own goals. Because those goals are derived in a principled manner, there is no need to use external mechanisms to force collaboration or coordination among the components to ensure that the system reaches a globally desirable solution. The results show that not only this approach provides improvements of over an order of magnitude over both traditional search methods and traditional multi-agent methods, but that the gains increase with the size of the system. This latter result makes this method ideal for domains where the number of components is currently in the thousands and will reach millions in the near future.

Tumer, Kagan↗
NASA NTRS2017

Reconfigurable Model Execution in the OpenMDAO Framework

NASA's OpenMDAO framework facilitates constructing complex models and computing their derivatives for multidisciplinary design optimization. Decomposing a model into components that follow a prescribed interface enables OpenMDAO to assemble multidisciplinary derivatives from the component derivatives using what amounts to the adjoint method, direct method, chain rule, global sensitivity equations, or any combination thereof, using the MAUD architecture. OpenMDAO also handles the distribution of processors among the disciplines by hierarchically grouping the components, and it automates the data transfer between components that are on different processors. These features have made OpenMDAO useful for applications in aircraft design, satellite design, wind turbine design, and aircraft engine design, among others. This paper presents new algorithms for OpenMDAO that enable reconfigurable model execution. This concept refers to dynamically changing, during execution, one or more of: the variable sizes, solution algorithm, parallel load balancing, or set of variables-i.e., adding and removing components, perhaps to switch to a higher-fidelity sub-model. Any component can reconfigure at any point, even when running in parallel with other components, and the reconfiguration algorithm presented here performs the synchronized updates to all other components that are affected. A reconfigurable software framework for multidisciplinary design optimization enables new adaptive solvers, adaptive parallelization, and new applications such as gradient-based optimization with overset flow solvers and adaptive mesh refinement. Benchmarking results demonstrate the time savings for reconfiguration compared to setting up the model again from scratch, which can be significant in large-scale problems. Additionally, the new reconfigurability feature is applied to a mission profile optimization problem for commercial aircraft where both the parametrization of the mission profile and the time discretization are adaptively refined, resulting in computational savings of roughly 10% and the elimination of oscillations in the optimized altitude profile.

Hwang, John T.↗
NASA NTRS1960

Measurement of Screen-Size Effects on Intensity, Scale, and Spectrum of Turbulence in a Free Subsonic Jet

The results are reported of hot-wire anemometer measurements of the fluctuating longitudinal component of the turbulent velocities in the mean flow downstream of screens in an air jet. These measurements have been analyzed by well-established techniques to give the influence of tile screen mesh size on the turbulent intensity, scale, and the power-spectral-density. The results show a linear dependence of the intensity upon the screen mesh size for locations within the central core of the air jet. The spectral-density curves show that the screens redistribute the turbulent energy from the low frequencies (<1000 cps) to the high frequencies (>1000 cps). The effects of the screens are overwhelmed in the mixing region of the jet flow by the turbulence levels existing there. The large pressure drops occurring across the screens reduce the velocity of the jet as compared to the jet without screens by approximately one-third for the velocity and range of mesh sizes investigated and reported in this report. The turbulence scale is a linear function of distance from the nozzle exit and is somewhat greater than comparable jets without screens.

Howard, Charles D.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Defect Clustering and Nano-Phase Structure Characterization of Multi-Component Rare Earth Oxide Doped Zirconia-Yttria Thermal Barrier Coatings

Advanced oxide thermal barrier coatings have been developed by incorporating multi-component rare earth oxide dopants into zirconia-yttria to effectively promote the creation of the thermodynamically stable, immobile oxide defect clusters and/or nano-scale phases within the coating systems. The presence of these nano-sized defect clusters has found to significantly reduce the coating intrinsic thermal conductivity, improve sintering resistance, and maintain long-term high temperature stability. In this paper, the defect clusters and nano-structured phases, which were created by the addition of multi-component rare earth dopants to the plasma-sprayed and electron-beam physical vapor deposited thermal barrier coatings, were characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The defect cluster size, distribution, crystallographic and compositional information were investigated using high-resolution TEM lattice imaging, selected area diffraction (SAD), electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis techniques. The results showed that substantial defect clusters were formed in the advanced multi-component rare earth oxide doped zirconia- yttria systems. The size of the oxide defect clusters and the cluster dopant segregation was typically ranging from 5 to 50 nm. These multi-component dopant induced defect clusters are an important factor for the coating long-term high temperature stability and excellent performance.

Zhu, Dongming↗
NASA NTRS1990

Defect Clustering and Nano-Phase Structure Characterization of Multi-Component Rare Earth Oxide Doped Zirconia-Yttria Thermal Barrier Coatings

Advanced oxide thermal barrier coatings have been developed by incorporating multi- component rare earth oxide dopants into zirconia-yttria to effectively promote the creation of the thermodynamically stable, immobile oxide defect clusters and/or nano-scale phases within the coating systems. The presence of these nano-sized defect clusters has found to significantly reduce the coating intrinsic thermal conductivity, improve sintering resistance, and maintain long-term high temperature stability. In this paper, the defect clusters and nano-structured phases, which were created by the addition of multi-component rare earth dopants to the plasma- sprayed and electron-beam physical vapor deposited thermal barrier coatings, were characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The defect cluster size, distribution, crystallographic and compositional information were investigated using high-resolution TEM lattice imaging, selected area diffraction (SAD), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis techniques. The results showed that substantial defect clusters were formed in the advanced multi-component rare earth oxide doped zirconia-yttria systems. The size of the oxide defect clusters and the cluster dopant segregation was typically ranging fiom 5 to 50 nm. These multi-component dopant induced defect clusters are an important factor for the coating long-term high temperature stability and excellent performance.

Zhu, Dongming↗
NASA NTRS1993

An efficient formulation of the coupled finite element-integral equation technique for solving large 3D scattering problems

It is often desirable to calculate the electromagnetic fields inside and about a complicated system of scattering bodies, as well as in their far-field region. The finite element method (FE) is well suited to solving the interior problem, but the domain has to be limited to a manageable size. At the truncation of the FE mesh one can either impose approximate (absorbing) boundary conditions or set up an integral equation (IE) for the fields scattered from the bodies. The latter approach is preferable since it results in higher accuracy. Hence, the two techniques can be successfully combined by introducing a surface that encloses the scatterers, applying a FE model to the inner volume and setting up an IE for the tangential fields components on the surface. Here the continuity of the tangential fields is used bo obtain a consistent solution. A few coupled FE-IE methods have recently appeared in the literature. The approach presented here has the advantage of using edge-based finite elements, a type of finite elements with degrees of freedom associated with edges of the mesh. Because of their properties, they are better suited than the conventional node based elements to represent electromagnetic fields, particularly when inhomogeneous regions are modeled, since the node based elements impose an unnatural continuity of all field components across boundaries of mesh elements. Additionally, our approach is well suited to handle large size problems and lends itself to code parallelization. We will discuss the salient features that make our approach very efficient from the standpoint of numerical computation, and the fields and RCS of a few objects are illustrated as examples.

Cwik, T.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Oxide_Oxide Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) Exhaust Mixer Development in the NASA Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) Project

Rolls-Royce North American Technologies, Inc. (LibertyWorksLW) began considering the development of CMC exhaust forced mixers in 2008, as a means of obtaining reduced weight and hotter operating temperature capability, while minimizing shape distortion during operation, which would improve mixing efficiency and reduce fuel burn. Increased component durability, enhanced ability to fabricate complex-shaped components, and engine noise reduction are other potential advantages of CMC mixers (compared to metallic mixers). In 2010, NASA was pursuing the reduction of NOx emissions, fuel burn, and noise from turbine engines in Phase I of the Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) Project. ERA subtasks, including those focused on CMC components, were formulated with the goal of maturing technology from proof of concept validation (TRL 3) to a systemsubsystem or prototype demonstration in a relevant environment (TRL 6). In April 2010, the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) and LibertyWorks jointly initiated a CMC Exhaust System Validation Program within the ERA Project, teaming on CMC exhaust mixer development for subsonic jet engines capable of operating with increased performance. Our initial focus was on designing, fabricating, and characterizing the thrust and acoustic performance of a roughly quarter-scale 16-lobe oxide oxide CMC mixer and tail cone along with a conventional low bypass exhaust nozzle. Support Services, LLC (Allendale, MI) and ATK COI Ceramics, Inc. (COIC, in San Diego, CA) supported the design of a subscale nozzle assembly that consisted of an oxide oxide CMC mixer and center body, with each component mounted on a metallic attachment ring. That design was based upon the operating conditions a mixer would experience in a turbofan engine. Validation of the aerodynamic and acoustic performance of the subscale mixer via testing and the achievement of TRL 4 encouraged the NASALWCOIC team to move to the next phase where a full scale CMC mixer sized for a RR AE3007 engine and a compatible attachment flange were designed, followed by CMC component fabrication by COIC, and vibration testing at GRC under conditions simulating the structural and dynamic environment encountered during engine operation. AFRL (WPAFB) supported this testing by performing 3D laser vibrometry to identify the mixer mode shapes and modal frequencies. The successful fabrication and testing of such a component has been achieved. The CMC mixer demonstrated good durability during vibration testing at room and elevated temperature (TRL5). This has cleared the article for a ground-based test on a Rolls-Royce AE3007 engine, where the performance and benefits of the component can be further assessed.

exhaust nozzles↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

An Eddy Current Case Study using NASA’s Transfer Function and Limited-Sample Probability of Detection Guidebooks

Probability of detection (POD) requirements for NASA fracture-critical human-rated systems can be met by (1) claiming ‘similarity’ to NASA Standard Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) flaw sizes or (2) by inspector-specific POD demonstration, known as NASA Special NDE. Standard NDE flaw sizes are intended to represent the detection capability of most qualified inspectors, and were primarily based on POD studies in the development of the Space Shuttle Program Orbiter fracture control plan. However, these Standard NDE flaw sizes were based on fatigue cracks in flat panels of one material alloy over a limited range of panel thicknesses. While the POD study was comprehensive, the inspection conditions are relatively narrow. An evaluation of similarity between the Standard NDE POD study and flight component conditions is required to apply Standard NDE to specific flight component inspections. A similarity evaluation may include differences in materials, surface finish, component geometry (e.g., curvature, corners, welds), and inspection access. Similarity is typically based on a qualitative engineering evaluation. Recently, NASA published a quantitative methodology to assess similarity. If similarity is not supported by test and analysis, then the methodology provides a transfer function of flaw size for Special NDE POD demonstration. NASA recommends that Special POD demonstrations use flaws that are flight-like or more difficult to detect than flight component flaws, which are commonly induced fatigue cracks. Often, it is not feasible to induce fatigue cracks in flight component geometry, and therefore, a simpler representative geometry is used, commonly a flat panel, for POD demonstration. Inducing cracks in simple geometry specimens can be time-consuming and expensive, and thus, minimizing the number of flawed specimens is desired. Traditionally, NASA Special NDE demonstration was limited to MIL-HDBK-1823A methods or the binomial point-estimate method (PEM), commonly known as 29/29. Recently, NASA published a limited-sample POD (LS-POD) methodology for signal-response NDE techniques (e.g., eddy current) that provides POD demonstration with fewer specimens than previous approaches. LS-POD suggests a minimum of 10 flawed specimens, compared to 29 in the PEM and the suggested minimum of 40 from MIL-HDBK-1823A. The methodology also includes new guidance on evaluating the probability of false calls. In this presentation, these new transfer function and LS-POD methodologies are described and illustrated through an eddy current detection capability of far-side flaws on thin welded panels. A geometry-based transfer function is developed using electro-discharge machined (EDM) notches in flight component and simple geometry to estimate the Special NDE flaw size that is representative of the critical initial flaw size required by the fracture analysis. Then, fatigue cracks are induced in simple flat panels of the transferred flaw size, and the LS-POD methodology is used for Special NDE demonstration.

P. A. Parker↗
NASA NTRS1992

Size of metallic and polyethylene debris particles in failed cemented total hip replacements

Reports of differing failure rates of total hip prostheses made of various metals prompted us to measure the size of metallic and polyethylene particulate debris around failed cemented arthroplasties. We used an isolation method, in which metallic debris was extracted from the tissues, and a non-isolation method of routine preparation for light and electron microscopy. Specimens were taken from 30 cases in which the femoral component was of titanium alloy (10), cobalt-chrome alloy (10), or stainless steel (10). The mean size of metallic particles with the isolation method was 0.8 to 1.0 microns by 1.5 to 1.8 microns. The non-isolation method gave a significantly smaller mean size of 0.3 to 0.4 microns by 0.6 to 0.7 microns. For each technique the particle sizes of the three metals were similar. The mean size of polyethylene particles was 2 to 4 microns by 8 to 13 microns. They were larger in tissue retrieved from failed titanium-alloy implants than from cobalt-chrome and stainless-steel implants. Our results suggest that factors other than the size of the metal particles, such as the constituents of the alloy, and the amount and speed of generation of debris, may be more important in the failure of hip replacements.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Cruise Propulsion System Thermal Analysis for NASA’s X-57 “Maxwell” Mod II Configuration

The X-57 “Maxwell” is NASA’s flight demonstrator for distributed electric propulsion technologies. The X-57 Mod II configuration is designed to test the electric cruise propulsion system for X-57 and features an electric cruise motor mounted in an integral nacelle on each wing. The electric motors and associated control equipment for X-57 Mod II are air-cooled; therefore, they require adequate cooling airflow to stay within temperature limits in all relevant flight conditions within the operational ambient temperature limits set by the X-57 project. A computational flow analysis was conducted to estimate the internal flow properties of the X-57 Mod II cruise nacelles in three critical flight conditions. These flow properties were then used to determine the boundary conditions for individual component thermal models, which were used to estimate individual component operating temperatures. The results indicated that the low-speed, low-altitude initial takeoff climb during hot day conditions was the sizing condition from a cooling perspective. The analysis found that the cooling flowpaths in the X-57 Mod II cruise nacelles are adequate to provide cooling to all components with the appropriate amount of thermal margin except two of the low-voltage control boards in the cruise motor controller. These components would violate required thermal margins by less than two degrees Celsius in the Project Hot Day reference atmosphere.

Nicholas K Borer↗