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NASA NTRS1960

Thermal Design of the Micrometeoroid Satellite S-55

The thermal design of the micrometeoroid satellite S-55 involves both experimental and analytical approaches in selecting materials and coatings. A cutaway drawing of the S-55 satellite is shown. The purpose of which is to obtain scientific and engineering design data on the frequency and penetration hazard of micrometeoroids at altitudes between about 250 nautical miles and 700 nautical miles. The passive method of thermal control used involves the selection of materials and coatings that give the desired ratio of absorptivity to emissivity alpha/epsilon for keeping the telemetry temperature within narrow limits and also to prevent overheating of the separate experiments. The selection of a material or coating for this purpose, however, is dictated not only by its absorptivity and emissivity values, but also by its reliability and the constancy of these values under long exposure to the space environment. Several test programs have been conducted in order to evaluate the materials and coatings being considered. Some of these are as follows: (1) Ultraviolet radiation in a vacuum to study discoloration and weight change. (2) Solar radiation in a vacuum to determine maximum equilibrium temperature, discoloration, and weight loss. (3) Thermal cycling and thermal shock to study material integrity (leaking, spalling, melting, etc.). (4) Proton radiation to observe effects on color, crystal structure, and strength. (5) Determination of effects of heat associated with coating application on the leak rate of pressurized parts. (6) Absorptivity and emissivity measurements. The experimental tests outlined and the maximum use of coating methods successfully employed on previous satellites should provide high reliability of the material used for the thermal design of this vehicle. A theoretical analysis was made to determine the values of alpha/epsilon required for different areas in order that the telemetry remain within the desired temperature limits.

Hastings, Earl C., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Using Magnetic Fields to Control Convection during Protein Crystallization: Analysis and Validation Studies

The effect of convection during the crystallization of proteins is not very well understood. In a gravitational field, convection is caused by crystal sedimentation and by solutal buoyancy induced flow and these can lead to crystal imperfections. While crystallization in microgravity can approach diffusion limited growth conditions (no convection), terrestrially strong magnetic fields can be used to control fluid flow and sedimentation effects. In this work, we develop the analysis for magnetic flow control and test the predictions using analog experiments. Specifically, experiments on solutal convection in a paramagnetic fluid were conducted in a strong magnetic field gradient using a dilute solution of Manganese Chloride. The observed flows indicate that the magnetic field can completely counter the settling effects of gravity locally and are consistent with the theoretical predictions presented. This phenomenon suggests that magnetic fields may be useful in mimicking the microgravity environment of space for some crystal growth ana biological applications where fluid convection is undesirable.

Ramachandran, N.↗

NASA NTRS2007

Design of Electrical Systems for Rocket Propulsion Test Facilities at the John C. Stennis Space Center

This viewgraph presentation reviews the design of the electrical systems that are required for the testing of rockets at the Rocket Propulsion Facility at NASA Stennis Space Center (NASA SSC). NASA/SSC s Mission in Rocket Propulsion Testing Is to Acquire Test Performance Data for Verification, Validation and Qualification of Propulsion Systems Hardware. These must be accurate reliable comprehensive and timely. Data acquisition in a rocket propulsion test environment is challenging: severe temporal transient dynamic environments, large thermal gradients, vacuum to 15 ksi pressure regimes SSC has developed and employs DAS, control systems and control systems and robust instrumentation that effectively satisfies these challenges.

Hughes, Mark S.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Taking SiC Power Devices to the Final Frontier: Addressing Challenges of the Space Radiation Environment

Silicon carbide power device technology has the potential to enable a new generation of aerospace power systems that demand high efficiency, rapid switching, and reduced mass and volume in order to expand space-based capabilities. For this potential to be realized, SiC devices must be capable of withstanding the harsh space radiation environment. Commercial SiC components exhibit high tolerance to total ionizing dose but to date, have not performed well under exposure to heavy ion radiation representative of the on-orbit galactic cosmic rays. Insertion of SiC power device technology into space applications to achieve breakthrough performance gains will require intentional development of components hardened to the effects of these highly-energetic heavy ions. This work presents heavy-ion test data obtained by the authors over the past several years for discrete SiC power MOSFETs, JFETs, and diodes in order to increase the body of knowledge and understanding that will facilitate hardening of this technology to space radiation effects. Specifically, heavy-ion irradiation data taken under different bias, temperature, and ion beam conditions is presented for devices from different manufacturers, and the emerging patterns discussed.

Power semiconductor devices↗

NASA NTRS2017

Human Factors Virtual Analysis Techniques for NASA's Space Launch System Ground Support using MSFC's Virtual Environments Lab (VEL)

Using virtual environments to assess complex large scale human tasks provides timely and cost effective results to evaluate designs and to reduce operational risks during assembly and integration of the Space Launch System (SLS). NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) uses a suite of tools to conduct integrated virtual analysis during the design phase of the SLS Program. Siemens Jack is a simulation tool that allows engineers to analyze human interaction with CAD designs by placing a digital human model into the environment to test different scenarios and assess the design's compliance to human factors requirements. Engineers at MSFC are using Jack in conjunction with motion capture and virtual reality systems in MSFC's Virtual Environments Lab (VEL). The VEL provides additional capability beyond standalone Jack to record and analyze a person performing a planned task to assemble the SLS at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The VEL integrates Vicon Blade motion capture system, Siemens Jack, Oculus Rift, and other virtual tools to perform human factors assessments. By using motion capture and virtual reality, a more accurate breakdown and understanding of how an operator will perform a task can be gained. By virtual analysis, engineers are able to determine if a specific task is capable of being safely performed by both a 5% (approx. 5ft) female and a 95% (approx. 6'1) male. In addition, the analysis will help identify any tools or other accommodations that may to help complete the task. These assessments are critical for the safety of ground support engineers and keeping launch operations on schedule. Motion capture allows engineers to save and examine human movements on a frame by frame basis, while virtual reality gives the actor (person performing a task in the VEL) an immersive view of the task environment. This presentation will discuss the need of human factors for SLS and the benefits of analyzing tasks in NASA MSFC's VEL.

Searcy, Brittani↗

NASA NTRS2018

Space System Verification Approach Based on MEAL and Mission Risk Posture

There is no "one size fits all" solution for verifying space avionics systems to ensure safety and mission success. This paper presents a verification approach based on MEAL and risk posture for space systems. MEAL refers to Mission, mission Environment, Application, and Lifetime of the application. In addition to the description of the verification approach, the paper also provides the awareness of the different levels of risks associated with verification tests and inspections when performed at part-, board- and box-level, and discusses the applications of the approach for flight heritage verification, commercial off the shelf (COTS) verification and radiation-effects verification.

Mission Environment Application and Lifetime (MEAL↗

NASA NTRS2018

Space System Verification Approach Based on MEAL and Mission Risk Posture

Mission Environment Application and Lifetime (MEAL↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Space Crop Production

As astronauts venture farther from Earth, and for longer periods, food will become increasingly critical. Crop production can supplement a packaged diet to provide additional nutrients and variety for astronauts. Testing with the Veggie and Advanced Plant Habitat chambers on the International Space Station is allowing us to understand the impacts of gravity and spaceflight on crop growth and nutritional content, and the importance of plants to astronauts living and working away from our home planet. The space environment presents unique challenges to crop production, and technology and knowledge gaps have been identified. Key gaps include how to: - Identify and demonstrate effective options to provide both water and oxygen to the root zone in microgravity - Understand the deep space radiation impacts on seeds and plants - Investigate the relationship between microbiomes and food safety - Store and handle seeds to ensure they are viable, free of contaminants and long-lived - Identify / develop potential crops suitable for the space environment - Understand automation and human factors - Determine scalability for different concepts and architectures Filling these gaps will help enable future human exploration and move us toward Earth-independence.

Space Crop Production↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Space Crop Production

As astronauts venture farther from Earth, and for longer periods, food will become increasingly critical. Crop production can supplement a packaged diet to provide additional nutrients and variety for astronauts. Testing with the Veggie and Advanced Plant Habitat chambers on the International Space Station is allowing us to understand the impacts of gravity and spaceflight on crop growth and nutritional content, and the importance of plants to astronauts living and working away from our home planet. The space environment presents unique challenges to crop production, and technology and knowledge gaps have been identified. Key gaps include how to: • Identify and demonstrate effective options to provide both water and oxygen to the root zone in microgravity • Understand the deep space radiation impacts on seeds and plants • Investigate the relationship between microbiomes and food safety • Store and handle seeds to ensure they are viable, free of contaminants and long-lived • Identify / develop potential crops suitable for the space environment • Understand automation and human factors • Determine scalability for different concepts and architectures Filling these gaps will help enable future human exploration and move us toward Earth-independence.

Veggie↗

NASA NTRS2012

Challenges for Life Support Systems in Space Environments, Including Food Production

Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) refer to the technologies needed to sustain human life in space environments. Histor ically these technologies have focused on providing a breathable atmo sphere, clean water, food, managing wastes, and the associated monitoring capabilities. Depending on the space agency or program, ELCSS has sometimes expanded to include other aspects of managing space enviro nments, such as thermal control, radiation protection, fire detection I suppression, and habitat design. Other times, testing and providing these latter technologies have been associated with the vehicle engi neering. The choice of ECLSS technologies is typically driven by the mission profile and their associated costs and reliabilities. These co sts are largely defined by the mass, volume, power, and crew time req uirements. For missions close to Earth, e.g., low-Earth orbit flights, stowage and resupply of food, some 0 2, and some water are often the most cost effective option. But as missions venture further into spa ce, e.g., transit missions to Mars or asteroids, or surface missions to Moon or Mars, the supply line economics change and the need to clos e the loop on life support consumables increases. These are often ref erred to as closed loop or regenerative life support systems. Regardless of the technologies, the systems must be capable of operating in a space environment, which could include micro to fractional g setting s, high radiation levels, and tightly closed atmospheres, including perhaps reduced cabin pressures. Food production using photosynthetic o rganisms such as plants by nature also provides atmospheric regenerat ion (e.g., CO2 removal and reduction, and 0 2 production), yet to date such "bioregenerative" technologies have not been used due largely t o the high power requirements for lighting. A likely first step in te sting bioregenerative capabilities will involve production of small a mounts of fresh foods to supplement to crew's diet. As humans venture further into space, regenerative life support technologies will becom e more important, and gathering accurate data on their performance an d reliabilities will require long lead times. As we learn more about sustainable living in space, we almost certainly learn more about sust ainable living on Earth.

Wheeler, Raymond M.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Human Error and the International Space Station: Challenges and Triumphs in Science Operations

Any system with a human component is inherently risky. Studies in human factors and psychology have repeatedly shown that human operators will inevitably make errors, regardless of how well they are trained. Onboard the International Space Station (ISS) where crew time is arguably the most valuable resource, errors by the crew or ground operators can be costly to critical science objectives. Operations experts at the ISS Payload Operations Integration Center (POIC), located at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, have learned that from payload concept development through execution, there are countless opportunities to introduce errors that can potentially result in costly losses of crew time and science. To effectively address this challenge, we must approach the design, testing, and operation processes with two specific goals in mind. First, a systematic approach to error and human centered design methodology should be implemented to minimize opportunities for user error. Second, we must assume that human errors will be made and enable rapid identification and recoverability when they occur. While a systematic approach and human centered development process can go a long way toward eliminating error, the complete exclusion of operator error is not a reasonable expectation. The ISS environment in particular poses challenging conditions, especially for flight controllers and astronauts. Operating a scientific laboratory 250 miles above the Earth is a complicated and dangerous task with high stakes and a steep learning curve. While human error is a reality that may never be fully eliminated, smart implementation of carefully chosen tools and techniques can go a long way toward minimizing risk and increasing the efficiency of NASA's space science operations.

Harris, Samantha S.↗

NASA NTRS2008

Radiation effects assessment of MRAM devices

The Magneto-resistive Random Access Memory (MRAM) from Freescale Semiconductor, MR2A16A, was subjected to heavy ion single event testing. Test results show that this device is sensitive to Single Event Latchup (SEL). The sensitivity of the MRAM was attributed to the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process in which the active portion of this device is constructed. Therefore, the device must be used with caution and may require mitigation techniques if used in a space environment. There was no indication that the MRAM technology itself, the memory element construction, is subject to damage from heavy ions.

McClure, Steve↗

NASA NTRS2010

Radiation Beamline Testbeds for the Simulation of Planetary and Spacecraft Environments for Human and Robotic Mission Risk Assessment

The Center for Radiation Engineering and Science for Space Exploration (CRESSE) at Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, Texas, USA, is establishing an integrated, multi-disciplinary research program on the scientific and engineering challenges faced by NASA and the international space community caused by space radiation. CRESSE focuses on space radiation research directly applicable to astronaut health and safety during future long term, deep space missions, including Martian, lunar, and other planetary body missions beyond low earth orbit. The research approach will consist of experimental and theoretical radiation modeling studies utilizing particle accelerator facilities including: 1. NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL) at Brookhaven National Laboratory; 2. Proton Synchrotron at Loma Linda University Medical Center; and 3. Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Specifically, CRESSE investigators are designing, developing, and building experimental test beds that simulate the lunar and Martian radiation environments for experiments focused on risk assessment for astronauts and instrumentation. The testbeds have been designated the Bioastronautics Experimental Research Testbeds for Environmental Radiation Nostrum Investigations and Education (BERT and ERNIE). The designs of BERT and ERNIE will allow for a high degree of flexibility and adaptability to modify experimental configurations to simulate planetary surface environments, planetary habitats, and spacecraft interiors. In the nominal configuration, BERT and ERIE will consist of a set of experimental zones that will simulate the planetary atmosphere (Solid CO2 in the case of the Martian surface.), the planetary surface, and sub-surface regions. These experimental zones can be used for dosimetry, shielding, biological, and electronic effects radiation studies in support of space exploration missions. BERT and ERNIE are designed to be compatible with the experimental areas associated with the above facilities. CRESSE has broad expertise in space radiation in the areas of space radiation environment modeling, Monte-Carlo radiation transport modeling, space radiation instrumentation and dosimetry, radiation effects on electronics, and multi-functional composite shielding materials. The BERT and ERNIE testbeds will be utilized in individual and collaborative research incorporating this expertise. The research goal is to maximize the technical readiness level (TRL) of radiation instrumentation for human and robotic missions, optimizing the return value of CRESSE for NASA exploration and international co-operative missions. Outcomes and knowledge from research utilizing BERT and ERNIE will be applied to a variety of scientific and engineering disciplines vital for safe and reliable execution of future space exploration missions, which can be negatively impacted by the space radiation environment. The testbeds will be central to a variety of university educational activities and educational goals of NASA. Specifically, BERT and ERNIE will enhance educational opportunities in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines for engineering and science students at PVAMU, a historically black college/university. Preliminary data on prototype testbed configurations, including simulated lunar regolith (JSC-1A stimulant based on Apollo 11 samples), regolith/polyethylene composites, and dry ice, will be presented to demonstrate the usefulness of BERT and ERNIE in radiation beam line experiments.

Wilkins, Richard↗

NASA NTRS2006

Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows as Probes of Environment and Blastwave Physics: Absorption by Host Galaxy Gas and Dust - 1

We use a new approach to obtain limits on the absorbing columns towards an initial sample of 10 long Gamma-Ray Bursts observed with BeppoSAX and selected on the basis of their good optical and nIR coverage, from simultaneous fits to nIR, optical and X-ray afterglow data, in count space and including the effects of metallicity. In no cases is a MIV-like ext,inction preferred, when testing MW, LMC and SMC extinction laws. The 2175A bump would in principle be detectable in all these afterglows, but is not present in the data. An SMC-like gas-to-dust ratio or lower value can be ruled out for 4 of the hosts analysed here (assuming Sh4C metallicity and extinction law) whilst the remainder of the sample have too large an error to discriminate. We provide a more accurate estimate of the line-of-sight extinction and improve upon the uncertainties for the majority of the extinction measurements made in previous studies of this sample. We discuss this method to determine extinction values in comparison with the most commonly employed existing methods.

Starling, R. L. C.↗

NASA NTRS2009

Orbital Debris Research at NASA

The United States has one of the most active programs of research of the orbital debris environment in the world. Much of the research is conducted by NASA s Orbital Debris Program Office at the Johnson Space Center. Past work by NASA has led to the development of national space policy which seeks to limit the growth of the debris population and limit the risk to spacecraft and humans in space and on the Earth from debris. NASA has also been instrumental in developing consistent international policies and standards. Much of NASA's efforts have been to measure and characterize the orbital debris population. The U.S. Department of Defense tracks and catalogs spacecraft and large debris with it's Space Surveillance Network while NASA concentrates on research on smaller debris. In low Earth orbit, NASA has utilized short wavelength radars such as Haystack, HAX, and Goldstone to statistically characterize the population in number, size, altitude, and inclination. For higher orbits, optical telescopes have been used. Much effort has gone into the understanding and removal of observational biases from both types of measurements. NASA is also striving to understand the material composition and shape characteristics of debris to assess these effects on the risk to operational spacecraft. All of these measurements along with data from ground tests provide the basis for near- and long-term modeling of the environment. NASA also develops tools used by spacecraft builders and operators to evaluate spacecraft and mission designs to assess compliance with debris standards and policies which limit the growth of the debris environment.

Stansbery, Eugene G.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Aerothermal Effects of Cavities and Protuberances for High-Speed Sample Return Capsules

Extraterrestrial sample return is a growing component of solar system exploration. Currently, four missions, Stardust, 1 Muses-C, 2 Genesis, and Mars Sample Return, are under development that employ sample return as a prime component of the mission architecture. Respectively, these missions will return samples from the tail of a comet, an asteroid, the solar wind, and, Mars. An important component of these missions and the focus of this paper is the design of the sample return capsule (SRC). The purpose of the SRC is to safely return to Earth any gathered samples for terrestrial analysis. The two major design constraints for any SRC are as follows: 1) it must be able to survive a high-speed Earth entry (11 km/s to as a high as 15 km/s), 2) the mass of the SRC must be as small as possible. Because the SRC mass is carried from Earth to the sample sight and back, the SRC mass is a strong driver in the mission mass budget. Further, for the Mars Sample Return Capsule, planetary protection is another constraint. For this capsule, the probability of planetary contamination at Earth due to an SRC failure at entry must be minimal. For an SRC, a possible failure mechanism is severe local heating as a result of cavities and or protuberances in the SRC forebody heatshield. For example, the Apollo Command Module had a number of cavities and protuberances as part of the baseline designs Wind-tunnel tests of models containing small cavities and protuberances showed severe local heating augmentations in the vicinity of these surface discontinuities.4-5 As another example, the Genesis SRC forebody heat-shield contains penetrations (cavities) to mount the vehicle to the carrier bus. It is expected that these penetrations will also experience a severe local heating environment. A concern is that the large thermal gradients may produce sufficient thermal stress to cause local mechanical failure of the heatshield. Penetrations to the forebody heat-shield can also result from damage at vehicle integration, during launch, or during transportation of the sample return capsule from earth to the sample site and back. For example, the Starting SRC was damaged near the shoulder during the heatshield integration process producing a local surface discontinuity. Also, the Starting SRC traverses through the tail of a comet and is in space for 7 years. Thus, damage to the heatshield as a result of micrometeroid impact is a concern. Finally, it is difficult to characterize the effects of these potential heatshield singularities with ground-test facilities. Either detailed simulation or a dedicated flight test is required.

Olynick, David↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Power Hibernation for Low-Cost Solar Powered Lunar Missions

Because the surface of the Moon drops to cryogenic temperatures, no solar-powered lunar spacecraft have reliably operated beyond a single lunar day. Passive thermal control cannot keep a spacecraft sufficiently warm for the 354-hour lunar night, and active thermal control requires a dramatic increase in battery mass at the expense of payload mass. Extreme conditions seen on the lunar surface suggest a radioisotope solution is ideal, but mass, cost, and schedule are inconsistent with low-cost frequent flight intent of the commercial lunar payload services (CLPS) program. To solve the issue of lunar night survivability without radioisotope sources of power and heat, a lunar power hibernation approach is being developed at the Glenn Research Center, which exploits the ability of common 18650 Lithium-ion cells to passively survive cryogenic freeze-thaw cycles and recover without apparent performance degradation. A key aspect of this hibernation approach is the use of cryogenically operable electronics that safely manage the restoration of the battery thermal environment at lunar dawn. A spacecraft utilizing this strategy will operate into the lunar night on batteries until the state of charge or spacecraft temperature reaches a predetermined threshold. At this point, systems are shut down and the battery is isolated from the main bus to prevent charge or discharge during the freezing and thawing transitions. The system remains passive until lunar dawn, where temperatures can reach as low as 50 K. All electronics must be tolerant to these conditions. When the solar arrays are finally illuminated at lunar dawn, the main bus power electronics will initiate a “cold start” and begin regulating array power. The main bus electronics must be designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures. Array power is used to warm the battery and passive electronics back to operational temperatures. Once batteries are returned to normal temperatures, diagnostics and precharging is performed, as needed, and the battery is reconnected. The overall spacecraft system reboots and returns to nominal operations until lunar night returns. To assure that we can develop batteries suited for many hibernation freeze/thaw cycles, STMD Space Technology Research Grant Program (STRG) has selected two principal investigators that will thoroughly characterize of the Li-ion cell through the freeze-thaw process, investigate degradation mechanisms, and identify potential diagnostic techniques. STMD STRG is also funding an investigation of Gallium-Nitride semiconductors for cryogenic power applications. This work includes physics-informed modeling that considers cryogenic conductivity, carrier mobility, and quantum effects that govern semiconductor performance at cryogenic temperatures. These models can enable engineers to develop accurate cryogenic simulation models that assist in the design of power controls stable over the entire lunar surface temperature range. Meanwhile, Glenn is performing cryogenic testing of batteries and electronics, establishing design guidelines for power applications in extreme cold lunar environment, and potentially developing a hibernation technology demonstrator. The hibernation approach will enable low-cost lunar robotic missions to extend their operating lifetime to many months while minimizing development costs and impact on payload capacity. The need for cryogenically operable electronics is restricted to only main bus power and battery controls, as the majority of systems simply need to passively tolerate cryogenic temperatures. This allows developers to continue to exploit the cost savings of legacy and COTS hardware with minimum modification. For these reasons, lunar power hibernation is a viable near-term solution for lunar night survivability for solar powered commercial landers.

Space power↗

NASA NTRS2017

The Effects of CDKN1a/p21 on Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Function During Long Duration Spaceflight

Spaceflight factors, such as microgravity and space radiation, are known to put astronauts at risk for negative effects to their tissue regeneration and degenerative conditions. On our previous spaceflight research, we found that long duration spaceflight produced increased oxidative stress and activation of the inflammatory response as a major contributor to physiological changes, including alterations to the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems, metabolism, and the liver. Proliferation, apoptosis, and ion-channel remodeling of vascular smooth muscle cells, as well as endothelial inflammation, and nitric oxide synthase-nitric oxide system regulation have been shown by spaceflight and simulated spaceflight projects. CDKN1ap21 is a regulatory gene for tissue regeneration and also plays an important role in upregulating oxidative stress caused by radiation. In further research, we have also determined CDKN1ap21 to be overexpressed during spaceflight. When knocked out in mice, however, it protects against unloading-induced changes to the morphology and physiology of carotid arteries. In this proposal, we seek to test a potential dietary countermeasure to down-regulate CDKN1ap21 in the mice and protect against oxidative stress in the rodents. Specifically, we will expose both Wildtype and CDKN1ap21-null mice to hydrogen peroxide to induce oxidative stress and observe the molecular mechanisms in which a dietary supplement protects vascular smooth muscle cells against the consequences of the apoptotic environment within Wildtype mice versus the, hypothetically, sound physiology of CDKN1ap21-null mice. The successful completion of this experiment will conclusively determine accuracy of a dietary supplement as a CDKN1ap21 suppressor. This will provide a new perspective on the problem of increased oxidative stress developing into cardiovascular disease as a result of long-term space flight. This research will address the Human Research Plan Roadmaps Risk of Cardiac Rhythm Problems including CV-8, the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Other Degenerative Tissue Effects from Radiation Exposure including Degen-6 and Degen-7, and the Risk of Adverse Health Event from Radiation Exposure including IM-8. Additionally, this research will address Space Biology Research Plans questions SBP CMB-1, SBP CMB-3, and SB AN-2.

Oxidative Stress↗