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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 775 records · Page 43
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2019

Assessment of Enthalpy-Based Conditional Moment Closure Models in Predicting Ignition of Lean and Stoichiometric PRF-Air Mixtures with Temperature Inhomogeneity

Accurate prediction of the ignition delay in turbulent flows is important in developing advanced combustion technology for internal combustion engines. Enthalpy-based conditional moment closure (CMC) models are assessed with 2-D direct numerical simulation (DNS) data for ignition of homogeneous PRF-air mixtures with temperature inhomogeneity in homogeneous isotropic turbulence. The sensible-enthalpy-based CMC model is compared with the total-enthalpy-based formulation, with the focus being placed on assessing the capability of the CMC models in predicting ignition processes under different engine conditions. A priori analysis shows that the total-enthalpy-based CMC gives good predictions of the heat release rates in the lean mixtures when the temperature inhomogeneity level is low, but leads to significant overprediction under the stoichiometric condition regardless of the thermal stratification levels. On the other hand, the sensible enthalpy formulation performs well for all conditions considered in this study due to the suppressed conditional temperature fluctuations. A mapping method to model conditional scalar dissipation rates and probability density function of sensible enthalpy is also assessed.

Wang, Wei↗
DOE OSTI2019

Modeling Pre-Spark Heat Release and Low Temperature Chemistry of Iso-Octane in a Boosted Spark-Ignition Engine

Recent trends among automotive manufacturers towards downsized, boosted engines make it imperative to understand specific fuel chemistry interactions encountered in this new operating regime. At these elevated pressure conditions a phenomenon called pre-spark heat release (PSHR) has recently been discovered, characterized by kinetically controlled heat release before spark, leading to changes in end-gas thermodynamic state and composition. These reactions typically occur in the end-gas during normal operation, but are obscured by the deflagration heat release, and therefore cannot be easily studied. A 2-zone spark-ignition engine model was utilized to determine whether chemical kinetic mechanisms predict this phenomenon, and whether they accurately capture end-gas thermodynamic history. Experimental engine data at a range of boosted operating conditions demonstrating PSHR were compared with simulations using mechanisms representing the latest developments in gasoline kinetic modeling. The results demonstrated significant discrepancies between mechanisms, and between experimental and simulated results in terms of low-temperature heat release magnitude and end-gas thermodynamic state. That none of the un-tuned mechanisms matched the experimental results highlights shortcomings in low-temperature reaction pathways, and indicate the necessity of simultaneously matching first-stage ignition delay and heat release magnitude, in addition to second-stage ignition delay, in order to accurately predict end-gas thermodynamics and knock.

Delvescovo, Dan↗
DOE OSTI2019

Predicting Cycle-to-cycle Variations in a Spark-ignition Engine using Multi-cycle Large Eddy Simulation

Multi-cycle large eddy simulation (LES) of a spark-ignition engine has been performed to predict cycle-to-cycle variations (CCV). To describe spark-ignited premixed flame propagation, the front propagation formulation (FPF) method is combined with a laminar-to-turbulent flame transition model that describes the non-equilibrium flame development processes during the initial stage of the kernel growth. In the laminar-to-turbulent flame transition model, the effects of turbulence on the variations in the laminar-to-turbulent flame transition time are modeled based on the Kolmogorov energy cascade. 15 consecutive cycle LES of in-cylinder processes in a spark-ignition four-valve single cylinder engine is conducted. The predicted in-cylinder pressure is compared with the experimental measurements. The range of CCV observed in the experiment is reproduced to an acceptable degree. The predicted CCV is found to be closely related to the difference in the turbulence field near the spark plug around the time of spark discharging, which is consistent with the previous LES studies. The current results also suggest the importance of capturing the variations of the laminar-to-turbulent flame transition in predicting CCV.

Yu, Yunde↗
DOE OSTI2020

Microwave ignition of energetic material housed within a gun

The systems and methods for microwave ignition of energetic material housed within a gun (e.g., primers and/or propellants) allow for the use of insensitive energetic materials and/or insensitive gas-generating materials in place of sensitive energetic materials relied upon by mechanical ignition systems. In some embodiments, the use of insensitive energetic materials and/or insensitive gas-generating materials increase the safety and reliability of guns that would otherwise need to depend on sensitive energetic material required by mechanical or laser ignition mechanisms. Additionally, in some embodiments, the systems and methods provide greater versatility with respect to the variety of energetic materials that may be employed within guns.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2019

ADVANCING TURBULENT SPRAY AND COMBUSTION MODELS FOR COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE SIMULATIONS

This thesis seeks to investigate the turbulent mixing influence on spray atomization and combustion processes encountered in compression ignition diesel engines. Despite greater thermal efficiency of diesel engine than spark ignition engine, the nature of stratified air-fuel mixture and non-premixed flame gives rise to unacceptable levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), thus the use of diesel engines has often been limited to heavy-duty vehicle and industrial power sources. However, recent advancement in diesel engine combustion strategies, e.g. low temperature combustion (LTC), has demonstrated promising pathways towards improvement in the engine-out pollutants. Therefore, particularly in the effort of computer-aided engine design tasks, such a new engine design concept requires more accurate modeling techniques applicable over a broader range of engine operating conditions than those of conventional engine strategies. In the notion of challenges in new engine operating conditions, this thesis aims to present successful implementation of improvement in numerical modeling techniques in high-pressure spray atomization and resulting turbulent spray flame of interest. Three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in in-cylinder turbulent combustion is considered an integral part of engine design progress, but rather a cost-prohibitive to apply over a broad range of engine relevant conditions. In spite of successful use of existing spray atomization modeling, prior researchers have pointed out some degree of failure in LTC targeted injection strategies. Furthermore, finite rate and strong nonlinearity of chemistry influenced by local turbulent mixing still remain in challenges to account for in cost-efficient CFD analysis. In this context, a new attempt of hybrid spray primary breakup modeling is presented and demonstrated in successful application aimed at LTC technique. In addition, the Representative Interactive Flamelets (RIF) model with aid of multi-flamelets approach is extensively assessed in terms of predictive capability against classical combustion model. The combustion model employed in this study are fully examined in the general diesel combustion metric, e.g., ignition delay and flame lift-off length as well as newly suggested test metric, combustion recession. The combustion recession has been recently idenfied, but still remain largely unknown. Since the governing physics of this phenomenon is characterized by turbulent mixing coupled with finite rate chemistry, this can be considered as a relevant test metric for turbulent combustion models. In addition, very recent experimental studies have introduced a new non-sooting diesel combustion technique by manipulating direct injection method. The ducted fuel injection (DFI) has thus been demonstrated with its potential of low soot emissions. Knowing that the duct equipped ahead of injector nozzle was identifed to enhance turbulent mixing, investigations of DFI combustion may prove the effectiveness of turbulece-chemistry interaction modeling. This thesis presents comprehensive understandings of aformentioned diesel combustion techniques in terms of several important physics keywords, e.g., turbulent mixing and detailed chemistry.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Visualization of Jet Impingement and Ignition in a Piston-Cylinder Chamber

The transportation sector accounts for almost a third of the United States energy consumption. We are developing predictive simulations of the complex in-cylinder processes of internal combustion engines to improve performance and decrease pollutant emissions. Using volume rendering, we provide a first look at the jet impingement and ignition inside a piston-cylinder chamber. Through the visualization, we were able to construct a complete 3D picture of the jet impingement on the piston-bowl walls leading to the formation of pockets of auto-ignition of fuel-air mixture. These auto-ignition pockets subsequently lead to flame stabilization releasing the chemical energy for conversion to useful work. A detailed physical picture of flame stabilization as provided by the visualization techniques presented in this study help in the design next-generation internal combustion engines.

91 SC - Advanced Scientific Computing Reseach (ASC↗
DOE OSTI2025

Evaluating Chemical Kinetics Predictions for Propane Using 3-D and 0-D Models in a Boosted Spark-Ignited Engine

Propane has been shown to be a promising alternative fuel to reduce emissions while simultaneously achieving high efficiencies in medium- and heavy-duty engines. These high-power density applications require boosted engines which, combined with high compression ratio, can lead to auto-ignition and knock. While three-dimensional (3-D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are often used for resolving the complex fluid flow in engines, these models can become computationally expensive when simulating detailed chemical kinetics. Likewise, zero-dimensional (0-D) models are computationally concise enough for kinetics development, but lack any flow-field information which governs the flame propagation processes in spark ignition (SI) engines. This work presents a comprehensive comparison between 3-D and 0-D closed cycle simulations at knocking conditions in a high compression ratio high stroke-to-bore ratio propane engine. In order to initialize the flow-field for the 3-D closed cycle (intake valve closing, (IVC) to exhaust valve opening, (EVO)) simulation, a motored multi-cycle 3-D model was run using Converge to create a map at IVC, reducing the computational time. The map allowed a non-homogeneous 3-D closed cycle simulation to be satisfactorily validated against experiments, while a homogeneous case using only the turbulence field mapping was also simulated, mimicking 0-D modeling. The 3-D simulations were used to prescribe the initial conditions (e.g., IVC thermodynamics, speciation, burn-rate profile) for a 2-zone 0-D SI engine model in Chemkin Pro for both cases. It was found that 2-zone 0-D modeling underpredicted the knock onset timing, likely due to the lack of thermal stratification in the unburned gas region. Future work will carry multi-zone 0-D modeling to capture the fuel auto-ignition in the unburned region.

Douvry-Rabjeau, Julien [Oakland University, Roches↗
DOE OSTI2023

Low-carbon fuels for spark-ignited engines: A comparative study of compressed natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas on a CFR engine with exhaust gas recirculation

Decades of work on low-carbon fuels have established their potential for substantial emissions reductions; however, their adoption is still limited by infrastructure concerns and engine efficiency deficits. As infrastructures have begun to evolve, research on strategies that maximize engine efficiency through interactions with fuel properties must also now take center place. This paper compares the performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of two forefront low-carbon fuels: compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in a cooperative fuel research (CFR) engine over a range of compression ratios and engine loads. The effects of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), end-gas auto-ignition, and a novel combustion control tool, the combustion intensity metric (CIM), were also evaluated at different stoichiometric engine operating conditions. In comparison to LPG, CNG operation demonstrated an extended knock-free regime, allowing engine operation at higher engine loads and compression ratios, but LPG operation exhibited enhanced combustion characteristics with higher peak pressures and faster apparent heat release rates (AHRR). LPG operation achieved higher brake thermal efficiencies and lower equivalent CO 2 emissions compared to CNG operation at the tested engine loads and compression ratios. LPG demonstrated significantly higher EGR tolerance limits compared to CNG, with a maximum of 28% EGR rate, compared to 23% for CNG. This improved EGR dilution tolerance was responsible for a 90% reduction in NOx emissions for LPG compared to a maximum of 70% with CNG. EGR dilution also exhibited more effective knock mitigation potential with LPG, suppressing knock intensity values by up to 98% and transitioning the engine operation towards normal combustion from heavy knocking conditions. As a result, the CIM was found to decrease burn durations and improve the quality of combustion by controlling the desired fraction of end-gas auto-ignition.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Asymmetric-shell ignition capsule design to tune the low-mode asymmetry during the peak drive

The low-mode radiation flux asymmetry in the hohlraum is a main source of performance degradation in the National Ignition Facility (NIF) implosion experiments. To counteract the deleterious effects of the large positive P2 flux asymmetry during the peak drive, this paper develops a new tuning method called asymmetric-shell ignition capsule design which adopts the intentionally asymmetric CH ablator layer or deuterium-tritium (DT) ice layer. A series of two-dimensional implosion simulations have been performed, and the results show that the intentionally asymmetric DT ice layer can significantly improve the fuel ρR symmetry, hot spot shape, hot spot internal energy, and the final neutron yield compared to the spherical capsule. This indicates that the DT asymmetric-shell capsule design is an effective tuning method, while the CH ablator asymmetric-shell capsule could not correct the fuel ρR asymmetry, and it is not as effective as the DT asymmetric-shell capsule design.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2016

Status of Indirect Drive ICF Experiments on the National Ignition Facility

In the quest to demonstrate Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) ignition of deuterium-tritium (DT) filled capsules and propagating thermonuclear burn with net energy gain (fusion energy/laser energy >1), recent experiments on the National Ignition Facility (NIF) have shown progress towards increasing capsule hot spot temperature (Tion>5 keV) and fusion neutron yield (~10 16 ), while achieving ~2x yield amplification by alpha particle deposition. At the same time a performance cliff was reached, resulting in lower fusion yields than expected as the implosion velocity was increased. Ongoing studies of the hohlraum and capsule physics are attempting to disseminate possible causes for this performance ceiling.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Multi-regime mixing modeling for local extinction and re-ignition in turbulent non-premixed flame by using LES/FDF method

Local extinction and re-ignition occur in turbulent non-premixed combustion when the Damköhler number is not large enough and the combustion is not fully mixing controlled. The occurrence of local extinction introduces locally extinguished flame holes followed by a premixed flame propagation toward the hole center to potentially reignite the flame. The co-existence of the non-premixed and premixed combustion regimes complicates the modeling since traditional combustion models are mostly for a single regime. In this work, we examine the effect of multi-regime mixing modeling in the transported filtered density function (FDF) method on the predictions of local extinction and reignition. Predictions of local extinction and reignition remain a challenge for the FDF method despite the progress made in the past. To account for the multi-regime combustion, two different mixing timescale models for non-premixed and premixed combustion are combined. A flame index based on the gradients of fuel and oxidizer is used to define a weighting factor to blend the two mixing timescale models. A turbulent jet non-premixed flame with substantial local extinction, the Sydney piloted jet flame L, is adopted as a test case to examine the performance of the multi-regime model in large-eddy simulation/FDF modeling. It is found that the traditional non-premixed mixing timescale model when combined with the modified Curl mixing leads to global extinction for the Sydney flame L without the presence of the premixed combustion regime. After accounting for the multi-regime combustion with proper detection of the different combustion regimes, the predictions for the flame statistics and the amount of local extinction are significantly improved. Furthermore, it suggests the need of including multi-regime combustion for the predictions of local extinction and re-ignition in turbulent non-premixed combustion configurations.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

60 years of science in ICF: from conception to scientific breakeven on the National Ignition Facility

The recent achievements of a burning plasma, fusion ignition, and scientific energy gain with deuterium-tritium (DT) fuel at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory’s National Ignition Facility (NIF) represents a major milestone in the development of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and all of fusion research. In these experiments, fuel pressures well in excess of hundreds of GBars were achieved in the compressed fuel, and robust alpha heating of the fuel, far in excess of the energy provided by the implosion, were demonstrated for the first time. These achievements occurred 60 years after the inception of ICF and the first laser demonstration, and were made possible by more than five decades of research at laser facilities around the world. Advances in laser technology both in wavelength and precision, motivated by improved understanding of laser-plasma interaction physics and the demands of targets; improvements in target fabrication inspired by the need to control and minimize hydrodynamic instabilities in the implosion; and multi-dimensional simulations and diagnostics have been critical to this achievement. This paper will summarize the scientific and technical advances, the surprises, and the challenges that had to be overcome to achieve these goals.

fusion↗
DOE OSTI2019

Impact of fuel and engine operating conditions on efficiency of a heavy duty truck engine running compression ignition mode using energy and exergy analysis

Gasoline compression ignition using a single gasoline-type fuel for direct/port injection has been shown as a method to achieve low temperature combustion with low engine-out NO x and soot emissions and high indicated thermal efficiency. However, key technical barriers to achieving low temperature combustion on multi-cylinder engines include the air handling system (limited amount of exhaust gas recirculation) as well as mechanical engine limitations (e.g. peak pressure rise rate). In light of these limitations, high temperature combustion with reduced amounts of exhaust gas recirculation appears more practical. Previous studies by the authors demonstrated that utilizing port and direct injection of E85 gasoline simultaneously resulted in the best performance and the highest brake thermal efficiency of 47.1%, which was 1.2% higher compared to diesel baseline. For further efficiency improvement, a better understanding of energy and exergy loss mechanisms is required. As such, in this work first and second law thermodynamics analysis were applied to experiments with gasoline compression ignition at an engine speed of 1038 rpm and brake mean effective pressure of 1.4 MPa on a 12.4 L multi-cylinder heavy-duty diesel engine. The impact on the efficiency, losses, and irreversibility with respect to various parameters such as fuel, injection strategy, intake condition, and port injected water mass was quantified. The peak efficiency of ideal cycles and the combined efficiency with a waste heat recovery system were also estimated in this study to assess opportunities for further efficiency gains. It was found that the combustion irreversibility was dominated by the combustion temperature rather than the fuel structure. Despite its highest brake thermal efficiency, E85 gasoline generated the highest exergy destruction due to its lowest combustion temperature. For the same reason, retarding the combustion phasing or adopting a port and direct injection strategy increased the exergy destruction. The combustion duration loss was more notable than the phasing loss and was affected by both the combustion duration and shape of heat release profile. Water port injection increased the exhaust energy, but the available energy dropped significantly attributed to the decrease in the exhaust temperature, rendering waste heat recovery ineffective. The second law analysis serves as a helpful tool in conjunction with the first law analysis to explore pathways to maximize engine efficiency.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Shock tube ignition delay times and methane time-histories measurements during excess CO 2 diluted oxy-methane combustion

The combustion of methane in air results in large amounts of CO 2 and NO X emissions. In order to reduce the NO X emissions, one possible solution is the oxy-methane combustion with large CO 2 dilution so that the combustion products can be reduced mainly to CO 2 and H 2 O. However, there are very few studies on the chemical kinetics of oxy-methane combustion in a CO 2 diluted environment. In this study, methane time-histories, CH* emission profiles, and pressure time-histories measurements were conducted behind reflected shock waves to gain insight into the effects of CO 2 dilution of the gas mixtures on the ignition of methane. The measurements were carried out for mixtures of CH 4 , CO 2 and O 2 in argon bath gas at temperatures of 1577–2144 K, pressures of 0.53–4.4 atm, equivalence ratios (Φ) of 0.5, 1, and 2, and CO 2 mole fractions (X CO2 ) of 0, 30, and 60%. The laser absorption measurements were conducted using a continuous wave distributed feedback interband cascade laser (DFB ICL) centered at 3403.4 nm. The results showed the decrease of activation energy and the increase of ignition delay time as the amount of CO 2 dilution was increased. However, the changes were minor and within the experimental uncertainties of the measurements. Also, the results were compared to the predictions of two different natural gas mechanisms: GRI 3.0 and AramcoMech 1.3 mechanisms. In general the predictions were reasonable when compared to the experimental data; however, there were discrepancies at some conditions. Three different influences of CO 2 addition to the argon bath gas in regards to chemistry, collision efficiencies, and heat capacities were examined. In addition, the present study included experimentally obtained correlations for absorption cross sections of methane for its P(8) line in the v3 band in argon bath gas with and without carbon-dioxide dilutions at temperatures between 1200 < T < 2000 K and pressures between 0.7 < P < 1.2 atm.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Time-resolved measurements of OH during auto-ignition of syngas with trimethylsilanol and hexamethyldisiloxane

The effects of trimethylsilanol (TMSO) and hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) addition on OH time histories during syngas (H 2 and CO) ignition were investigated using the University of Michigan rapid compression facility. Experiments spanned temperatures of 1010–1080 K, at a pressure of approximately 5 atm. Syngas mixtures of 1.2 % H 2 /2.8 % CO/20 % O 2 by volume (balance N 2 and Ar) provided a baseline for comparison with mixtures that included 100, 200, and 1000 ppm of the TMSO and 100 ppm of HMDSO. Narrow-line ultraviolet laser-absorption was used to measure OH mole-fraction during ignition. The addition of TMSO and HMDSO significantly shifted the OH time-histories earlier in time, by up to 51 %, compared with the baseline syngas mixture. The value of the maximum OH mole fraction was consistent between the 100 and 200 ppm TMSO mixtures and the 100 ppm HMDSO mixtures, but the maximum OH increased significantly with the 1000 ppm TMSO mixtures. Here, the OH data indicate TMSO and HMDSO were not direct sources of OH radicals. Analysis further indicates the TMSO and HMDSO decompose rapidly followed by reactions that enhance the production of H atoms, and the increased reactivity observed is via the H + O 2 = OH + O reaction.

Hexamethyldisiloxane↗
DOE OSTI2023

Model predictive control of mixing controlled compression ignition operation for low reactivity fuels

Using gasoline or other low reactivity fuels with a pilot injection or port fuel injection in a compression ignition engine has shown great potential in reducing NOx emissions while keeping high thermal efficiency compared to diesel. However, excessive combustion noise is caused by a high maximum pressure rise rate in the cylinder due to the higher fractions of premixed charge of the low-reactivity fuel. This noise can result in structural damage to engine components and as such, combustion noise limits the range of the operating parameters and makes the control of such engines challenging. In this study, a simulation environment was built up in MATLAB/Simulink leveraging a physics-based zero-dimension combustion model to capture the in-cylinder pressure time traces as well as metrics relevant to thermal efficiency and combustion noise. Here, in order to also facilitate the control of emissions, machine learning models were investigated to capture NOx emissions. A kernel-based extreme learning machine (K-ELM) performed best and had a coefficient of correlation (R-squared) of 0.998. The combustion and NOx emission models are valid for not only conventional gasoline fuel but also oxygenated alternative fuel blends at three different pilot injection strategies. In order to track key combustion metrics while keeping noise and emissions within constraints, a model predictive control (MPC) was applied for a compression ignition engine operating with a range of potential fuels and fuel injection strategies. The MPC is validated under different scenarios, including a load step change, fuel type change, and injection strategy change, with proportional–integral (PI) control as the baseline. The simulation results show that MPC reduces about 26% of ringing intensity in the transient process and 17% at the steady state for E30. Generally, MPC can optimize the overall performance through modifying the main injection timing, pilot fuel mass, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) fraction.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2017

Comparative ignition tests of coal under oxy-fuel conditions in a standardized laboratory test rig

Ignitability is important to characterize pulverized coal combustion, as it is directly related to flame stability. The current paper describes a practical test rig for rapid laboratory analysis of pulverized coal cloud ignition properties. The system has been designed for conventional coal combustion conditions using air as the oxidant. In the current work, the measurement principle of the device is described and its adaption to and applicability for oxy-fuel combustion tests is demonstrated. Four coals with different rank were measured in air and in oxy-fuel atmospheres containing 20–35 vol% O 2 in CO 2 . Finally, the major influencing factors for the investigated samples were found to be the coal rank and the gas-phase oxygen concentration, while a minor influence of particle size was observed.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2018

A shock tube study of ignition delay times in diluted methane, ethylene, propene and their blends at elevated pressures

Ignition delay times (IDT) of small hydrocarbons at elevated pressures provide a valuable constraint for the refinement of the core small-hydrocarbon sub-mechanisms used in all combustion kinetics. Current knowledge of these core mechanisms is based largely on low-pressure data, with only limited high-pressure data available. To remedy this, here the present study focuses on ignition delay times in methane, ethylene, propene and their blends at elevated pressures. IDT measurements were performed in 4% O 2 , balance Ar mixtures, over the temperature range of 950–1800 K, at pressures of 14–60 atm and equivalence ratios of 1 and 2. IDT was determined from recorded sidewall pressure, OH* emission measurements and fuel time-histories measured using laser absorption at 3.39 μm. These measurements extend the test conditions of earlier studies, with the advantage that they have all been performed at similar conditions and with the same facility and should provide a uniform set of kinetics targets for the evaluation of core small-hydrocarbon mechanisms. This dataset also allowed the temperature variation of the pressure and equivalence ratio scaling for methane and ethylene IDT to be investigated.

42 ENGINEERING↗