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NASA NTRS2021

Results from the ASTERIA CubeSat Extended Mission Experiments

Over the past two years, JPL has used the ASTERIA (Arcsecond Space Telescope Enabling Research In Astrophysics) CubeSat as an in-flight test platform during extended missions. ASTERIA successfully completed its prime mission in early 2018, and continued to operate in low Earth orbit (LEO) for an additional twenty months. This paper describes demonstrations that were performed on the spacecraft and on the ground-based testbed during the extended mission. These demonstrations fall into three categories: Autonomy technology maturation, hardware characterization, and science discovery. Autonomy technology maturation supported three development efforts. The first shifted the spacecraft commanding paradigm from time-based sequences to Task Networks (tasknets), which allow simpler commanding and more robust onboard execution. The second demonstrated onboard orbit determination in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) without GPS. This activity used a fully-independent means of spacecraft orbit determination for Earth orbiters using only passive imaging. The third technology provided in situ hardware health state estimation using a model-based reasoning technique. These three technologies were demonstrated either in flight or on the testbed individually, and then were combined to demonstrate the capability to perform autonomous navigation on board without ground intervention, even in the presence of anomalies. Hardware characterization involved both onboard and ground-based activities. On board, nonstandard attitude control modes were commanded to characterize the spacecraft pointing jitter as a function of target brightness, reaction wheel speed, controller gain, and the number of guide stars. The results provide insights into the contribution of jitter to the ASTERIA photometry and inform the feasibility of future astrophysics small satellite missions for which jitter control is an enabling technology. On the ground, the ASTERIA Operations Team coordinated with Amazon Web Services (AWS) to configure their new ground stations to communicate with ASTERIA to prove out their viability. ASTERIA used AWS ground stations for nominal operations for the last four months of the mission. Finally, ASTERIA continued to perform exoplanet science as the spacecraft was well-suited to execute long-term monitoring of stars such as alpha Centauri to search for small transiting planets. The science team also imaged a number of interesting objects including a comet, an asteroid, cities at night, and the moon, and coordinated with other projects on Targets of Opportunity for follow-up confirmations and co-observations. Throughout the prime and the extended missions, the ASTERIA spacecraft proved to be a mighty platform that “will go into history as an innovative milestone.”[1 - Zurbuchen]

Doran, Patrick↗
NASA NTRS2006

Intelligent Rover Execution for Detecting Life in the Atacama Desert

On-board supervisory execution is crucial for the deployment of more capable and autonomous remote explorers. Planetary science is considering robotic explorers operating for long periods of time without ground supervision while interacting with a changing and often hostile environment. Effective and robust operations require on-board supervisory control with a high level of awareness of the principles of functioning of the environment and of the numerous internal subsystems that need to be coordinated. We describe an on-board rover executive that was deployed on a rover as past of the "Limits of Life in the Atacama Desert (LITA)" field campaign sponsored by the NASA ASTEP program. The executive was built using the Intelligent Distributed Execution Architecture (IDEA), an execution framework that uses model-based and plan-based supervisory control of its fundamental computational paradigm. We present the results of the third field experiment conducted in the Atacama desert (Chile) in August - October 2005.

Baskaran, Vijayakumar↗
NASA NTRS1999

Space Medicine: A Surgeon's Perspective

For the first four decades of human space flight NASA's priorities in life sciences and medical programs have been preventative medicine (astronaut selection and training); assessment of the physiologic effects of microgravity and other unique aspects of space flight, implementation of countermeasures to protect against adverse effects, and amelioration of these adverse effects. Because most of the U.S. space flight experience has been on short duration missions, the need for medical and diagnostic treatment capabilities have been limited.The first long-term crews will arrive on the International Space Station (ISS) in early 2000. This will usher in a new era, an era of sustained human presence in Low Earth Orbit. One of the principal purposes of the ISS program is to increase the knowledge of the effects of long duration space flight on humans, a pre-requisite to future exploration class missions beyond Low Earth Orbit (e.g., a return to the Moon or an exploration of Mars). Areas of particular interest include protection from radiation, muscle atrophy, bone loss, cardiovascular alterations, immune dysfunction, adverse psychological response to hazards and confinement, and neurovestibular alterations. In addition, long duration space flight requires the development of autonomous medical care capabilities, as the distances involved eliminate the possibility of real-time telemedicine or robotic intervention, and prevent a mission abort and a rapid return to Earth. The objectives of this presentation include: 1. A description of the International Space Station project, including its research facilities and on-orbit medical capabilities; 2. An overview of the physiological and medical problems associated with microgravity in space flight; 3. A review of NASA's biomedical research priorities and ongoing work to develop clinical care capabilities for space flight crews (including surgical interventions) and; 4. An overview of current and proposed research priorities for NASA Research Announcements, NASA Space Biomedical Research Institute, Small Business Innovation Research Grant, and other funding sources.

Dawson, David L.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Detecting Volcanic Co2 Emissions Hidden in Tropical Volcanic Forests Using Fixed-Wing sUAS

CO2 emissions are among the earliest indicators of subsurface state change and reactivation of volcanic systems and these deep signals reflect in faint diffuse emissions variations on volcanic flanks. Monitoring vast areas of rainforests covering tropical volcanoes is challenging, and space-borne sensors like OCO-2 are not sensitive enough. Fortunately, trees exposed to mild enhancements of CO2 may experience fertilization and build excess CO2 into excess biomass (Cawse-Nicholson, et al. 2018, Biogeosciences). They also process excess CO2 through photosynthesis, measurable by fluorescence (Bogue et al., 2019, Biogeosciences). Furthermore, spaceborne remote sensing instruments have demonstrated increasing NDVI months to years before eruptions, unexplained by other factors (e.g., Houlie et al. 2006, EPSL; Seiler et al. 2017, PLoS One). By providing a means to map large areas of above-canopy CO2 variations over tropical rainforest on the flanks of actively degassing volcanoes, we enable to interpret the signals plants provide in response to excess CO2 with airborne and spaceborne hyperspectral remote sensing methods, including a possible future Surface Biology and Geology (SBG) NASA satellite mission.As a critical step to mature and test this concept, we deployed small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) using a fixed-wing sUAS designed for autonomous operations and long endurance in extreme environments, without causing significant disturbance of the sampled air. We integrated an in-situ sensor to record the CO2 enhancement field above the forest canopy. Test flight results on the flanks of Turrialba volcano in Costa Rica above forest canopies covering known moderate gas seeps demonstrate the sUAS-borne detection and mapping capabilities of above-canopy elevated CO2 gradients. The strong detection capabilities and high detector signal stability resulted from key system design elements including RF shielding, mechanical stabilization, and calibration procedures. This highly robust system is readily applied for diffuse volcanic CO2 emission studies on active volcanoes covered by dense vegetation.

Volcanic↗
NASA NTRS2010

Plans for the Meter Class Autonomous Telescope and Potential Coordinated Measurements with Kwajalein Radars

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Orbital Debris Program Office is teaming with the US Air Force Research Laboratory's (AFRL) Maui Optical Site to deploy a moderate field-of-view, 1.3 m aperture, optical telescope for orbital debris applications. The telescope will be located on the island of Legan in the Kwajalein Atoll and is scheduled for completion in the Spring of 2011. The telescope is intended to sample both low inclination/high eccentricity orbits and near geosynchronous orbits. The telescope will have a 1 deg diagonal field-of-view on a 4K x 4K CCD. The telescope is expected to be able to detect 10-cm diameter debris at geosynchronous altitudes (5 sec exposure assuming a spherical specular phase function w/ albedo =0.13). Once operational, the telescope has the potential of conducting simultaneous observations with radars operated by the US Army at Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) and located on the island of Roi-Namur, approximately 55 km to the north of Legan. Four radars, representing 6 frequency bands, are available for use: ALTAIR (ARPA-Long Range Tracking and Instrumentation Radar) operating at VHF & UHF, TRADEX (Target Resolution and Discrimination Experiment) operating at L-band and S-band, ALCOR (ARPA-Lincoln C-band Observables Radar) operating at S-band, and MMW (Millimeter Wave) Radar operating at Ka-band. Also potentially available is the X-band GBRP (Ground Based Radar-Prototype located 25 km to the southeast of Legan on the main island of Kwajalein.

Stansberry, Gene↗
NASA NTRS1989

Control of intelligent robots in space

In view of space activities like International Space Station, Man-Tended-Free-Flyer (MTFF) and free flying platforms, the development of intelligent robotic systems is gaining increasing importance. The range of applications that have to be performed by robotic systems in space includes e.g., the execution of experiments in space laboratories, the service and maintenance of satellites and flying platforms, the support of automatic production processes or the assembly of large network structures. Some of these tasks will require the development of bi-armed or of multiple robotic systems including functional redundancy. For the development of robotic systems which are able to perform this variety of tasks a hierarchically structured modular concept of automation is required. This concept is characterized by high flexibility as well as by automatic specialization to the particular sequence of tasks that have to be performed. On the other hand it has to be designed such that the human operator can influence or guide the system on different levels of control supervision, and decision. This leads to requirements for the hardware and software concept which permit a range of application of the robotic systems from telemanipulation to autonomous operation. The realization of this goal requires strong efforts in the development of new methods, software and hardware concepts, and the integration into an automation concept.

Freund, E.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Kalman filter based range estimation for autonomous navigation using imaging sensors

Rotorcraft operating in high-threat environments fly close to the surface of the earth to utilize surrounding terrain, vegetation, or man-made objects to minimize the risk of being detected by the enemy. Two basic requirements for obstacle avoidance are detection and range estimation of the object from the current rotorcraft position. There are many approaches to the estimation of range using a sequence of images. The approach used in this analysis differes from previous methods in two significant ways: an attempt is not made to estimate the rotorcraft's motion from the images; and the interest lies in recursive algorithms. The rotorcraft parameters are assumed to be computed using an onboard inertial navigation system. Given a sequence of images, using image-object differential equations, a Kalman filter (Sridhar and Phatak, 1988) can be used to estimate both the relative coordinates and the earth coordinates of the objects on the ground. The Kalman filter can also be used in a predictive mode to track features in the images, leading to a significant reduction of search effort in the feature extraction step of the algorithm. The purpose is to summarize early results obtained in extending the Kalman filter for use with actual image sequences. The experience gained from the application of this algorithm to real images is very valuable and is a necessary step before proceeding to the estimation of range during low-altitude curvilinear flight. A simple recursive method is presented to estimate range to objects using a sequence of images. The method produces good range estimates using real images in a laboratory set up and needs to be evaluated further using several different image sequences to test its robustness. The feature generation part of the algorithm requires further refinement on the strategies to limit the number of features (Sridhar and Phatak, 1989). The extension of the work reported here to curvilinear flight may require the use of the extended Kalman filter.

Sridhar, Banavar↗
NASA NTRS2001

A Study on a Microwave-Driven Smart Material Actuator

NASA s Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) has a large deployable, fragmented optical surface (greater than or = 2 8 m in diameter) that requires autonomous correction of deployment misalignments and thermal effects. Its high and stringent resolution requirement imposes a great deal of challenge for optical correction. The threshold value for optical correction is dictated by lambda/20 (30 nm for NGST optics). Control of an adaptive optics array consisting of a large number of optical elements and smart material actuators is so complex that power distribution for activation and control of actuators must be done by other than hard-wired circuitry. The concept of microwave-driven smart actuators is envisioned as the best option to alleviate the complexity associated with hard-wiring. A microwave-driven actuator was studied to realize such a concept for future applications. Piezoelectric material was used as an actuator that shows dimensional change with high electric field. The actuators were coupled with microwave rectenna and tested to correlate the coupling effect of electromagnetic wave. In experiments, a 3x3 rectenna patch array generated more than 50 volts which is a threshold voltage for 30-nm displacement of a single piezoelectric material. Overall, the test results indicate that the microwave-driven actuator concept can be adopted for NGST applications.

Choi, Sang H.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Crew Autonomy through Self-Scheduling: Guidelines for Crew Scheduling Performance Envelope and Mitigation Strategies

As NASA considers long-duration exploration missions, it is envisioned that crews will behave more autonomously as compared to low-Earth orbit missions. When considering long duration exploration missions, Flight Operations Directorate (FOD) identified the following benefits and challenges presented on this slide. As missions operate further from Earth, the communication latency between the spacecraft and Mission Control Center will increase requiring the crew to take a more active role in reacting to daily planning. However, one of the key challenges for crew self-scheduling is that we do not want to overwhelm astronauts who are not expert mission planners. This leads to our primary research objective: to first, characterize the human performance envelope for the task of planning and scheduling in the context of human spaceflight operations, then, develop countermeasure aids to mitigate adverse performance effects due to plan complexity, and finally, inform performance standards and guidelines based on research results. Our next steps are to finish summarizing our findings from the experiment in conference papers and our upcoming yearly report. In the upcoming year, we will continue to collect data in analog missions and begin summarizing our recommended standards and guidelines.

user experience↗
NASA NTRS2013

The ISIS Mission Concept: An Impactor for Surface and Interior Science

The Impactor for Surface and Interior Science (ISIS) mission concept is a kinetic asteroid impactor mission to the target of NASA's OSIRIS-REx (Origins-Spectral Interpretation-Resource Identification-Security-Regolith Explorer) asteroid sample return mission. The ISIS mission concept calls for the ISIS spacecraft, an independent and autonomous smart impactor, to guide itself to a hyper-velocity impact with 1999 RQ36 while the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft observes the collision. Later the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft descends to reconnoiter the impact site and measure the momentum imparted to the asteroid through the impact before departing on its journey back to Earth. In this paper we discuss the planetary science, human exploration and impact mitigation drivers for mission, and we describe the current mission concept and flight system design.

cratering experiment↗
NASA NTRS2014

BioSentinel: Monitoring DNA Damage Repair Beyond Low Earth Orbit on a 6U Nanosatellite

We are designing and developing a 6U nanosatellite as a secondary payload to fly aboard NASAs Space Launch System (SLS) Exploration Mission (EM) 1, scheduled for launch in late 2017. For the first time in over forty years, direct experimental data from biological studies beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) will be obtained during BioSentinels 12- to 18-month mission. BioSentinel will measure the damage and repair of DNA in a biological organism and allow us to compare that to information from onboard physical radiation sensors. This data will be available for validation of existing models and for extrapolation to humans.The BioSentinel experiment will use the organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) to report DNA double-strand-break (DSB) events that result from space radiation. DSB repair exhibits striking conservation of repair proteins from yeast to humans. The flight strain will include engineered genetic defects that prevent growth and division until a radiation-induced DSB activates the yeasts DNA repair mechanisms. The triggered culture growth and metabolic activity directly indicate a DSB and its repair. The yeast will be carried in the dry state in independent microwells with support electronics. The measurement subsystem will sequentially activate and monitor wells, optically tracking cell growth and metabolism. BioSentinel will also include TimePix radiation sensors implemented by JSCs RadWorks group. Dose and Linear Energy Transfer (LET) data will be compared directly to the rate of DSB-and-repair events measured by the S. cerevisiae biosentinels. BioSentinel will mature nanosatellite technologies to include: deep space communications and navigation, autonomous attitude control and momentum management, and micropropulsion systems to provide an adaptable nanosatellite platform for deep space uses.

cosmic rays↗
NASA NTRS1974

Vectorcardiographic results from Skylab medical experiment M092: Lower body negative pressure

Vectorcardiograms were recorded via a modified Frank lead system from all crewmen of the three Skylab missions in conjuction with the Lower Body Negative Pressure - M092 Experiment. Data were analyzed by a specially developed computer program (VECTAN). Design of the test sequences allowed direct comparisons of supine resting, Earth based (reference) vectorcardiograms with those taken during lower body negative pressure stress and those obtained at rest in orbit, as well as combinations of these conditions. Results revealed several statistically significant space flight related changes; namely, increased testing and lower body negative pressure stressed heart rates, modestly increased PR interval and corrected QTC interval, and greatly increased P and QPS loop maximal amplitudes. In addition, orientation changes in the QRS maximum vector and the J-vector at rest in space seem quite consistent among crewmen and different from those caused by the application of lower body negative pressure. No clinical abnormalities were observed. Etiology of these findings is conjectured to be, at least in part, related to fluid mass shifts occurring in weightlessness and attendant alterations in cardiovascular dynamics and myocardial autonomic control mechanisms.

Hoffler, G. W.↗
NASA NTRS1997

A Generative Control Capability for a Model-based Executive

This paper describes Burton, a core element of a new generation of goal-directed model-based autonomous executives. This executive makes extensive use of component-based declarative models to analyze novel situations and generate novel control actions both at the goal and hardware levels. It uses an extremely efficient online propositional inference engine to efficiently determine likely states consistent with current observations and optimal target states that achieve high level goals. It incorporates a flexible generative control sequencing algorithm within the reactive loop to bridge the gap between current and target states. The system is able to detect and avoid damaging and irreversible situations, After every control action it uses its model and sensors to detect anomalous situations and immediately take corrective action. Efficiency is achieved through a series of model compilation and online policy construction methods, and by exploiting general conventions of hardware design that permit a divide and conquer approach to planning. The paper presents a formal characterization of Burton's capability, develops efficient algorithms, and reports on experience with the implementation in the domain of spacecraft autonomy. Burton is being incorporated as one of the key elements of the Remote Agent core autonomy architecture for Deep Space One, the first spacecraft for NASA's New Millenium program.

Williams, Brian C.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Flight Testing of the TWiLiTE Airborne Molecular Doppler Lidar

In September, 2009 the TWiLiTE (Tropospheric Wind Lidar Technology Experiment) direct detection Doppler lidar was integrated for engineering flight testing on the NASA ER-2 high altitude aircraft. The TWiI,iTE Doppler lidar measures vertical profiles of wind by transmitting a short ultraviolet (355 nm) laser pulse into the atmosphere, collecting the laser light scattered back to the lidar by air molecules and measuring the Doppler shifted frequency of that light. The magnitude of the Doppler shift is proportional to the wind speed of the air in the parcel scattering the laser light. TWiLiTE was developed with funding from the NASA Earth Science Technology Office (ESTO) Instrument Incubator Program (11P). The primary objectives of the TWiLiTE program are twofold: 1) to advance the development of key technologies and subsystems critical for a future space based Global 3-1) Wind Mission, as recommended by the National Research Council in the recent Decadal Survey for Earth Science [1] and 2) to develop, for the first time, a fully autonomous airborne Doppler lidar and to demonstrate tropospheric wind profile measurements from a high altitude downward looking, moving platform to simulate spaceborne measurements. In this paper we will briefly describe the instrument followed by a discussion of the results from the 2009 engineering test flights

Gentry, Bruce↗
NASA NTRS2010

Establishing a Robotic, LEO-to-GEO Satellite Servicing Infrastructure as an Economic Foundation for Exploration

The strategy for accomplishing civilian exploration goals and objectives is in the process of a fundamental shift towards a potential new approach called Flexible Path. This paper suggests that a government-industry or public-private partnership in the commercial development of low Earth orbit to geostationary orbit (LEO-to-GEO (LTG)) space, following or in parallel with the commercialization of Earth-to-LEO and International Space Station (ISS) operations, could serve as a necessary, logical step that can be incorporated into the flexible path approach. A LTG satellite-servicing infrastructure and architecture concept is discussed within this new strategic context. The concept consists of a space harbor that serves as a transport facility for a fleet of specialized, fully- or semi-autonomous robotic servicing spacecraft. The baseline, conceptual system architecture is composed of a space harbor equipped with specialized servicer spacecraft; a satellite command, communication, and control system; a parts station; a fuel station or depot; and a fuel/parts replenishment transport. The commercial servicer fleet would consist of several types of spacecraft, each designed with specialized robotic manipulation subsystems to provide services such as refueling, upgrade, repair, inspection, relocation, and removal. The space harbor is conceptualized as an ISS-type, octagonal truss structure equipped with radiation tolerant subsystems. This space harbor would be primarily capable of serving as an operational platform for various commercially owned and operated servicer spacecraft positioned and docked symmetrically on four of the eight sides. Several aspects of this concept are discussed, such as: system-level feasibility in terms of ISS-truss-type infrastructure and subsystems emplacement and maintenance between LEO and GEO; infrastructure components assembly in LEO, derived from ISS assembly experience, and transfer to various higher orbital locations; the evolving Earth-to-orbit (ETO) capability to deliver humans and cargo to LEO for assembly purposes; system architectural definition, optimal orbital parameters, mass estimations, delta velocity ( V) estimations, power and propulsion options, and assessments of various critical technologies. Large-scale, robotic, LTG satellite servicing is considered as an essential economic pre-condition and next parallel or sequential step on the road toward exploration beyond LEO. Such a step might produce the necessary pre-requisite economic value that can be used by future decision makers to justify further investment in exploration beyond LEO.

Horsham, Gary A. P.↗
NASA NTRS2021

Multi-Resolution Elevation Mapping and Safe Landing Site Detection with Applications to Planetary Rotorcraft

In this paper, we propose a resource-efficient approach to provide an autonomous UAV with an on-board perception method to detect safe, hazard-free landing sites during flights over complex 3D terrain. We aggregate 3D measurements acquired from a sequence of monocular images by a Structure-from-Motion approach into a local, robot-centric, multi-resolution elevation map of the overflown terrain, which fuses depth measurements according to their lateral surface resolution (pixel-footprint) in a probabilistic framework based on the concept of dynamic Level of Detail. Map aggregation only requires depth maps and the associated poses, which are obtained from an on-board Visual Odometry algorithm. An efficient landing site detection method then exploits the features of the underlying multi-resolution map to detect safe landing sites based on the slope, roughness, and quality of the reconstructed terrain surface. The evaluation of the performance of the mapping and landing site detection modules are analyzed independently and jointly in simulated and realworld experiments in order to establish the efficacy of the proposed approach.

Brockers, Roland↗
NASA NTRS2003

Experimental Evaluation of Verification and Validation Tools on Martian Rover Software

To achieve its science objectives in deep space exploration, NASA has a need for science platform vehicles to autonomously make control decisions in a time frame that excludes intervention from Earth-based controllers. Round-trip light-time is one significant factor motivating autonomy capability, another factor is the need to reduce ground support operations cost. An unsolved problem potentially impeding the adoption of autonomy capability is the verification and validation of such software systems, which exhibit far more behaviors (and hence distinct execution paths in the software) than is typical in current deepspace platforms. Hence the need for a study to benchmark advanced Verification and Validation (V&V) tools on representative autonomy software. The objective of the study was to access the maturity of different technologies, to provide data indicative of potential synergies between them, and to identify gaps in the technologies with respect to the challenge of autonomy V&V. The study consisted of two parts: first, a set of relatively independent case studies of different tools on the same autonomy code, second a carefully controlled experiment with human participants on a subset of these technologies. This paper describes the second part of the study. Overall, nearly four hundred hours of data on human use of three different advanced V&V tools were accumulated, with a control group that used conventional testing methods. The experiment simulated four independent V&V teams debugging three successive versions of an executive controller for a Martian Rover. Defects were carefully seeded into the three versions based on a profile of defects from CVS logs that occurred in the actual development of the executive controller. The rest of the document is structured a s follows. In section 2 and 3, we respectively describe the tools used in the study and the rover software that was analyzed. In section 4 the methodology for the experiment is described; this includes the code preparation, seeding of defects, participant training and experimental setup. Next we give a qualitative overview of how the experiment went from the point of view of each technology; model checking (section 5), static analysis (section 6), runtime analysis (section 7) and testing (section 8). The find section gives some preliminary quantitative results on how the tools compared.

Brat, Guillaume↗
NASA NTRS2022

Bayesian Deep Learning for Segmentation for Autonomous Safe Planetary Landing

Hazard detection is critical for enabling autonomous landing on planetary surfaces. Current state-of-the-art methods leverage traditional computer vision approaches to automate the identification of safe terrain from input digital elevation models (DEMs). However, performance for these methods can degrade for input DEMs with increased sensor noise. In the last decade, deep learning techniques have been developed for various applications. Nevertheless, their applicability to safety-critical space missions has often been limited due to concerns regarding their outputs’ reliability. In response to these limitations, this paper proposes an application of the Bayesian deep learning segmentation method for hazard detection. The developed approach enables reliable, safe landing site detection by i) generating simultaneously a safety prediction map and its uncertainty map via Bayesian deep learning and semantic segmentation, and ii) using the uncertainty map to filter out the uncertain pixels in the prediction map so that the safe site identification is performed only based on the certain pixels (i.e., pixels for which the model is certain about its safety prediction). Experiments are presented with simulated data based on a Mars HiRISE digital terrain model by varying uncertainty threshold and noise levels to demonstrate the performance of the proposed approach.

Kento Tomita↗