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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 739 records · Page 41
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Atomic kinetics of laboratory photoionized plasmas relevant to astrophysics. Final report

The major goal of this project was to study the atomic and radiation physics of photoionized plasmas driven by a broadband x-ray flux and its impact on plasma x-ray heating and ionization, emissivity and opacity, and radiation-hydrodynamics. This problem is relevant to the physics of accretion disks surrounding black holes, x-ray binaries, and active galactic nuclei in astrophysics. In addition, it is also important for understanding non-equilibrium laboratory plasmas driven by a distribution of photons. To this end, and motivated by previous and ongoing gas-cell experiments performed by the PI at the Z facility of Sandia National Laboratories, we developed a new experimental platform at the 1MA Zebra pulsed power accelerator of the University of Nevada, Reno based on using a gas jet produced by a supersonic nozzle. The gas jet is turned into a photoionized plasma driven by the x- ray flux from a wire-array z-pinch. Establishing this new experimental platform at Zebra was a major goal of this project. In addition, we have also dedicated effort to continue complementary experiments at the Z facility using the gas-cell photoionized plasma set up with support from the Fundamental Science Program at Z as well as to perform data processing and analysis, and theory and modeling simulations, including electron kinetics and radiation-hydrodynamics. Since we seek to test and establish what physics models are needed to describe photoionized plasma guided by experimental observation, these complementary experimental efforts were central to achieving the goals of this project.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Surrogate models to optimize plasma-assisted atomic layer deposition in high aspect ratio features

In this work, we explore surrogate models to optimize plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD) in high aspect ratio features. In plasma-based processes such as PEALD and atomic layer etching (ALE), surface recombination can dominate the reactivity of plasma species with the surface, which can lead to unfeasibly long exposure times to achieve full conformality inside nanostructures like high aspect ratio vias. Using a synthetic dataset based on simulations of PEALD, we train artificial neural networks to predict saturation times based on cross section thickness data obtained for partially coated conditions. The results obtained show that just two experiments in undersaturated conditions contain enough information to predict saturation times within 10% of the ground truth. A surrogate model trained to determine whether surface recombination dominates the plasma–surface interactions in a PEALD process achieves 99% accuracy. This demonstrates that machine learning can provide a new pathway to accelerate the optimization of PEALD processes in areas such as microelectronics. Our approach can be easily extended to ALE and more complex structures.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Bolt: A Fast Solver for Kinetic Theories Using a High-Resolution Constrained Transport Scheme [Slides]

Our understanding of collisionless and semi-collisional plasmas in the nonlinear regime is limited by the expense of computing solutions numerically. Bolt is a fast, GPU-accelerated code for rapidly computing such solutions with accurate transport and an approximate collision operator. Such calculations are relevant to both problems in astrophysics, such as heat conduction and magnetic reconnection in accretion disks around black holes, and also to programmatic interests at LANL. The bolt code paper, demonstrating accuracy via a suite of test problems calculated on kodiak, is currently in preparation.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Neural network model of the multi-mode anomalous transport module for accelerated transport simulations

Here, a neural network version of the Multi-Mode Anomalous Transport Module, known as MMMnet, has been developed to calculate plasma turbulent diffusivities in DIII-D with a calculation time suitable for control applications. MMMnet uses a simple artificial neural network structure to predict the ion thermal, electron thermal, and toroidal momentum diffusivities while reproducing Multi-Mode Model (MMM) data with good accuracy and keeping the calculation time as a fraction of that associated with MMM. Model-based control techniques require models with fast calculation times, making many existing physics-oriented predictive codes unsuitable. The control-oriented predictive code COTSIM (Control Oriented Transport SIMulator) calculates the most significant plasma dynamics in response to the different actuators while running at a speed useful for control design. In order to achieve this calculation speed, COTSIM often relies on scaling laws and control-level models. Replacing some of these scaling laws and control-level models with neural network versions of more complex physics-level models has the potential of increasing the range of validity and the level of accuracy of COTSIM without compromising its computational speed. In this work, MMMnet is integrated into COTSIM to improve the turbulent diffusivity predictions, which will in turn improve the prediction accuracy associated with the dynamics of many plasma properties.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Advanced Photon Acceleration Schemes for Tunable XUV/Soft X-Ray Sources

We report on the advances made under the purview of DOE award number DE-SC0019135 that was active during the period: 09/01/2018–08/31/2021. The grant investigated the application of a “flying focus” to the problem of photon acceleration—in which a dynamic refractive index gradient is used to continuously upshift a probe beam’s frequency. Codes were written to describe the creation of ionization waves of arbitrary velocity (IWAVs) for use as a photon-accelerating medium, as well as the behavior of a witness pulse residing in said medium. Experiments first verified the spatiotemporal control over laser intensity provided by a chromatic flying focus, then used that ability to produce small-diameter IWAVs in the far-field with the expected dynamics, and finally demonstrated even further flexibility by producing large-diameter IWAVs in the laser quasi-far-field that maintained the beneficial dynamics. Multiple innovative diagnostics—spectrally resolved Schlieren and spectrally resolved interferometry—were pioneered in order to diagnose the IWAVs. For IWAV production in the laboratory, however, beam quality was identified as a key limitation in the quasi-far-field. Since the original chromatic flying focus was found to result in relatively long (ps duration) intensity peaks, which could limit some applications including photon acceleration, additional techniques were invented to provide similar spatiotemporal control while also retaining ultrashort intensity peaks. While simulations have identified several interesting regimes for photon acceleration—first predicting the upshift of a counterpropagating witness pulse from the optical to the extreme ultraviolet in less than 1 cm, and later obtaining similar shifts in less than 100 μm in a simpler self-seeded configuration—experimental demonstration is left for future work.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

A Data-driven, Physics-based Transport Model of Solar Energetic Particles Accelerated by Coronal Mass Ejection Shocks Propagating through the Solar Coronal and Heliospheric Magnetic Fields

Abstract In an effort to develop computational tools for predicting radiation hazards from solar energetic particles (SEPs), we have created a data-driven physics-based particle transport model to calculate the injection, acceleration, and propagation of SEPs from coronal mass ejection (CME) shocks traversing through the solar corona and interplanetary magnetic fields. The model runs on an input of corona and heliospheric plasma and magnetic field configuration from a magnetohydrodynamic model driven by solar photospheric magnetic field measurements superposed with observed CME shocks determined from coronagraph images. SEP source particles are injected at the shock using the result of diffusive shock acceleration formulation from a characteristic obliquity-dependent injection from a heated solar wind thermal tail population. With several advanced computation techniques involving stochastic simulation and integration, the model obtains the particle intensity at any location in interplanetary space through the rigorous solution to the time-dependent 5D focus transport equation in the phase space that includes perpendicular diffusion. We apply the model to the 2011 November 3 CME event. The calculation results reproduce multispacecraft SEP observations at Earth and STEREO-B reasonably well without normalization of particle flux. The observations at STEREO-A can be reproduced by rescaling particle energy or modified energy dependence of particle diffusion coefficients. This circumsolar SEP event seen by spacecraft at Earth, STEREO-A, and STEREO-B at widely separated longitudes can be explained by diffusive shock acceleration by a single CME shock with a moderate speed.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

A renewable double plasma mirror for Petawatt-class lasers

Exceptional pulse contrast can be critical for ultraintense laser experiments, particularly when using solid density targets, and their use is becoming widespread. However, current plasma mirror technology is becoming inadequate for the new generation of high repetition rate, high power lasers now available. We describe a novel double plasma mirror configuration based on renewable, free standing, ultrathin liquid crystal films tested at the BELLA Petawatt Laser Center. Although operating at a repetition rate of several shots per minute, this system can be scaled to a high repetition rate exceeding 1 Hz and represents an important step towards enabling sustained, continuous operation of plasma mirrors. We demonstrate an improvement of two to three orders of magnitude in contrast and a total throughput of 80%. We present the first measurements of a beam reflected from a single or double plasma mirror system using a wavefront sensor, showing a well preserved wavefront and spatial mode. Finally, we introduce a model that predicts the total throughput through this double plasma mirror. This is the first model that accurately predicts the peak reflectivity of a plasma mirror when given the laser temporal profile.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Spatially Resolved Characterisation of Low Mass Fraction Uranium Glass Working Reference Materials

Here, we present the results of a study to generate reference glasses that reflect an environment analogous to historic nuclear fallout samples of interest for post-detonation nuclear forensics. The glasses were generated by melting and then quenching SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 and CaCO 3 powders. Two suites of glasses with three distinct U isotopic ratios were successfully made with enrichments in the 235 U isotope (~ natural [0.72%], ~ 53% and 94%), but the bulk elemental data showed heterogeneity (~ 10% RSD) with U mass fractions ranging from 331.47 to 373.63 μg g -1 . Spatially resolved U isotopic measurements were performed using three mass spectrometry techniques (secondary ion mass spectrometry-single stage accelerator mass spectrometry [SIMS-SSAMS], large geometry [LG] - SIMS, and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry [LA-ICP-MS]) across five National Laboratories. The results showed good agreement with the bulk U isotopic data for the low, medium, and high U mass fractions. We conclude that despite elemental heterogeneity, these samples can serve as useful working reference materials for spatially resolved nuclear fallout analyses, as well as for other related spatially resolved analyses.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Overview of H- radio frequency ion sources for particle accelerators

Particle accelerators are among the most important scientific tools of the modern era. Large accelerator complexes have supported scientific user facilities which have had an enormous societal impact spanning many decades and enabling the work of thousands of scientific users worldwide contributing to many Nobel prizes in physics, biology and chemistry [1]. Many of the large hadron facilities employ accelerator complexes which include cyclotrons, synchrotrons, storage rings, linear or tandem accelerators and deliver ion beams of very high-intensity and/or very high-energy to their user facilities. These accelerator complexes require the injection of high-intensity beams of ions which are produced within an ion source and formed within a plasma or by bombardment of a surface [2]. Increasingly, RF systems are being utilized, to generate these ion-rich plasmas due to their high reliability and minimal use of consumable components. This report will first discuss the basic mechanisms of ion formation and plasma generation as well as some specifics of RF/microwave generators, matching circuits and plasma coupling structures typically employed. A detailed discussion will then be given of the RF-driven negative ion source systems employed by US Spallation Neutron Source as well as those used in similar facilities located around the globe. REFERENCES [1]Vladimir Shiltsev, “Particle beams behind physics discoveries”, Physics Today 73, Issue 4, 32 (2020) [2]Robert Welton et al, “Negative hydrogen ion sources for particle accelerators: Sustainability issues and recent improvements in long-term operations”, Journal of Physics Conf Series, 2244 012045

Welton, Robert F.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Impact of power flow on Z-pinch loads

Magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs) are used to deliver tens of MA to a Z-pinch load. The MITLs suffer current losses due to contaminant plasma located in the anode–cathode gap which is swept toward the load along the power flow. The swept up contaminant plasma can deposit mass and energy onto the load resulting in deformations or the seeding of macroscopic instabilities. This paper discusses 2D fully kinetic simulations of the contaminant plasma evolution which predict the current losses and the flux of mass and energy onto the load. Furthermore, the effects of a dynamic, i.e., imploding, load are shown to increase both the current loss and the mass and energy flux. The MITL used is a conical, radially converging design which is a feature common to MA-scale Z-pinch accelerators.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

The 2024 July 16 solar event: a challenge to the coronal mass ejection origin of long-duration gamma-ray flares

We present a multi-spacecraft analysis of the 2024 July 16 long-duration gamma-ray flare (LDGRF) detected by the Large Area Telescope on the Fermi satellite. The measured > 100 MeV γ-ray emission persisted for over seven hours after the flare impulsive phase, and was characterized by photon energies exceeding 1 GeV and a remarkably hard parent-proton spectrum. In contrast, the phenomena related to the coronal mass ejection (CME)-driven shock linked to this eruption were modest, suggesting an inefficient proton acceleration unlikely to achieve energies well above the 300 MeV pion-production threshold to account for the observed γ-ray emission. Specifically, the CME was relatively slow (∼600 km/s) and the accompanying interplanetary type-II/III radio bursts were faint and short-lived, unlike those typically detected during large events. In particular, the type-II emission did not extend to kilohertz frequencies and disappeared ∼5.5 hours prior to the LDGRF end time. Furthermore, the associated solar energetic particle (SEP) event was very weak, short-duration, and limited to a few tens of MeV, even at magnetically well-connected spacecraft. These findings demonstrate that a very fast CME resulting in a high-energy SEP event is not a necessary condition for the occurrence of LDGRFs, challenging the idea that the high-energy γ-ray emission is produced by the back-precipitation of shock-accelerated ions into the solar surface. The alternative origin scenario based on local particle trapping and acceleration in large-scale coronal loops is instead favored by the observation of giant arch-like structures of hot plasma over the source region that persisted for the entire duration of this LDGRF.

Sun: UV radiation↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Foreshock Model for Interstellar Shocks of Solar Origin: Voyager 1 and 2 Observations

The Voyager 1 (V1) and Voyager 2 (V2) spacecraft were launched in 1977 on a mission to explore the outer planets and reach the heliopause, the boundary between the hot solar plasma and the relatively cool interstellar plasma. V1 reached the heliopause on 2012 August 25, at 121.6 au, and V2 reached the heliopause on 2018 November 5, at 119.0 au. One of their remarkable discoveries was the detection of shocks propagating into the interstellar plasma from energetic solar events. These shocks are typically preceded by electron plasma oscillations excited by electron beams streaming along interstellar magnetic field lines ahead of the shocks. The frequencies of the plasma oscillations have now provided radial electron density profiles in the outer heliosphere and in the interstellar medium to radial distances of more than 145 au. The oscillations are typically preceded by bursts of high-energy ∼5–100 MeV electrons. These electron bursts are interpreted as being due to the reflection (and acceleration) of cosmic-ray electrons by the shock at the time the shock first contacts the magnetic field line that passes through the spacecraft. Relative timing between the cosmic rays reflected by the shock and the onset of the plasma oscillations allow us, for the first time, to estimate the energy, ∼20–100 eV, of the electron beams responsible for the plasma oscillations. These observations are combined into a self-consistent model called the foreshock model that describes the interaction of shocks of solar origin with the interstellar plasma.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Interplay between beam-driven chirping modes and plasma confinement transitions in spherical tokamak ST40

Experiments on the high field spherical tokamak ST40 have led to the recent observation of interplay between beam-driven modes of sweeping frequency (chirping modes) and transitions to the enhanced global confinement regime (H-mode) and back to the low confinement regime (L-mode). The H-modes of plasma confinement are identified from decreased intensity of D α signal and from clear distinctions in the edge gradients of the visible plasma boundary (observed as a sharp plasma edge in camera images). The beam-driven chirping modes, identified as ideal magnetohydrodynamics beta-induced Alfvén acoustic eigenmodes modes, are observed in Mirnov coil signals, interferometry, and soft x-ray diagnostics. A moderate amplitude ‘primer’ chirping mode usually precedes an H–L transition. This is followed by a ‘dominant’ chirping mode with higher amplitude during the L-mode. The L–H transition back to the improved confinement occurs on a longer time scale of tens of ms, consistent with the slowing down time scale of fast beam ions. A dramatic decrease in toroidal plasma rotation is systematically observed associated with chirping modes sweeping down to zero frequency. Resonance maps built for the beam-driven chirping modes with the ASCOT (accelerated simulation of charged particle orbits in torodoial devices) code show that the resonant beam ions have orbits near the trapped-passing boundary. The ASCOT modelling assesses how losses of the resonant fast ions caused by the chirping modes with high enough amplitude modify the torque, potentially affecting the plasma rotation.

magnetic confinement fusion↗
DOE OSTI2023

Tunable Laser-Plasma Amplifier (Final Report)

Exploration at the laser intensity frontier has always offered new avenues for physics and reaching beyond this frontier is a grand challenge. Present-day petawatt-class lasers provide focused intensities on target of 10 22 W/cm 2 , corresponding to electric fields of 200 TV/m, while laser-plasma amplification opens a route for focused intensities well above 10 23 W/cm 2 . Intensities in this range provide the ability to test quantum electrodynamics in the unexplored low-energy, strong-field regime where signatures for new physics may arise. The behavior of matter under such extraordinary conditions is a rich and fascinating subject, not only in its own right in fundamental plasma physics, but for the many potential applications that promise to enrich the natural sciences in the future, including compact electron-beam, ion-beam particle accelerators, and ultra-bright X-ray sources. Although laser systems are now under construction internationally to access intensities of 10 23 W/cm 2 , the current technologies used appear to be fundamentally limited to these intensities. The realization of intensities beyond 10 23 W/cm 2 using parametric amplification in plasmas promises a breakthrough in high-energy density physics. Parametric amplification using Raman scattering in a plasma could provide the enabling technology for the generation of ultra-high-power laser pulses, but a more complete understanding of the nonlinear optics of plasmas is required. There is a significant gap in well-diagnosed laser-plasma instability studies of nonlinear plasma-wave phenomena, which are critical to understand for future laser-plasma devices. To achieve an efficient laser-plasma amplifier, plasma waves must be driven to large amplitude where significant energy can be rapidly transferred from the pump to the seed over the pulse duration of the seed. Simulations suggest that this nonlinear pump depletion regime can be achieved in the “pi-pulse” amplification regime. While simulations show this optimal regime with efficient amplification, it has remained elusive in experiments and there is a growing consensus within the community that thermal effects and pump beam limitations prevent laser-plasma amplifiers from progressing through the linear regime into the nonlinear pump depletion regime. Previous experiments have been significantly limited by the laser power available at the necessary wavelengths for the seed laser; therefore, the amplification is required to start in the linear regime where it is sensitive to many deleterious effects. The enabling technology (currently unique to plasma-wave amplification in the world) at the University of Rochester is the ability to provide a seed pulse with sufficient power (4 mJ/100 fs seed) to immediately drive nonlinear plasma waves into the pi-pulse regime and to tune its wavelength to optimize the efficiency of energy transfer. This in combination with the state-of-the-art OMEGA heater beams providing multiple kilojoules in a nanosecond to sufficiently heat the plasma make this system distinct from previous studies. These heater beams will provide, for the first time in Raman amplification studies, a homogeneous electron temperature high enough to prevent pump beam propagation issues that have plagued previous experiments. These systems will provide a platform for driving electron-plasma waves into the nonlinear regime where pump depletion and pulse shortening are predicted to lead to high amplification efficiencies (>30%). The Team has made significant progress through prior support from DOE Fusion Energy Sciences [DOE Office of Science Award Number DE-SC0016253 (2016-2022)]. This includes twenty-two peer-reviewed manuscripts, one patent, ten contributed talks presented at international conferences, and research that was highlighted as invited talks at fifteen international conferences. The broader impacts of this research are evident in the support of early career scientists, two Ph.D. theses, four current graduate students, a Masters Project, two undergraduate researchers, and an underrepresented minority student hired through the California Alliance for Minority Participation who now works as a Research Engineer in the group. This research met all of the funded research objectives and the highlights from primary Raman amplification thrust of this work are discussed below and form the foundation for the proposed research.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Millimeter observational signatures of flares in magnetically arrested black hole accretion models

In general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations, accreted magnetic flux on the black hole horizon episodically decays, during which magnetic reconnection heats up the plasma near the horizon, potentially powering high-energy flares like those observed in M87* and Sgr A*. We study the mm observational counterparts of such flaring episodes in very high resolution GRMHD simulations. The change in 230 GHz flux during the expected high energy flares depends primarily on the efficiency of accelerating γ ≳ 100 (T e ≳ 10 11 K) electrons. For models in which the electrons are heated to T e ∼ 10 11 K during flares, the hot plasma produced by reconnection significantly enhances 230 GHz emission and increases the size of the 230 GHz image. By contrast, for models in which the electrons are heated to higher temperatures (which we argue are better motivated), the reconnection-heated plasma is too hot to produce significant 230 GHz synchrotron emission, and the 230 GHz flux decreases during high energy flares. We do not find a significant change in the mm polarization during flares as long as the emission is Faraday thin. We also present expectations for the ring-shaped image as observed by the Event Horizon Telescope during flares, as well as multiwavelength synchrotron spectra. Our results highlight several limitations of standard post-processing prescriptions for the electron temperature in GRMHD simulations. We also discuss the implications of our results for current and future observations of flares in Sgr A*, M87*, and related systems. Appendices contain detailed convergence studies with respect to resolution and plasma magnetization.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

US-UK fusion energy collaborations in the digital space

The US and UK share the vision for fusion as a vital part of the clean energy future. This vision is reflected in the respective national plans in the form of the Bold Decadal Vision for Commercial Fusion (BDV) in the US and the Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production (STEP) program in the UK. Digital tools such as simulation and control frameworks, design tools, AI/ML, high performance computing (HPC), and virtual reality (VR) will play an important role in developing, diagnosing, operating, and further improving burning-plasma-class fusion power plants. Therefore, a collaborative approach, involving both the public and private sectors, to developing these digital tools can accelerate the path to fusion energy commercialization. In this report we discuss previous and ongoing collaborations and opportunities to expand these collaborations into new areas. We conclude this report with near term actions and a vision of the collaboration to the Joint Coordinating Committee.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Beam Breakup Simulations for the Scorpius Flash-Radiography Accelerator

Beam breakup (BBU) in linear induction accelerators (LIAs) used for flash radiography is problematic because the high-frequency beam motion can blur the source spot, thereby degrading resolution. Amplification of BBU depends directly on details of cell design and is suppressed in operation by the solenoidal magnetic field focusing on the electron beam. Therefore, much effort has gone into design of the cells and magnetic focusing for the new Scorpius radiography LIA. Here, in this article, we use computer simulations to demonstrate that BBU in Scorpius should be no more than in present radiography LIAs at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

On the initiation and evolution of dielectric breakdown in auto-magnetizing liner experiments

Auto-magnetizing (AutoMag) liners are cylindrical tubes composed of discrete metallic helices encapsulated in insulating material; when driven with a ~2 MA, ~100-ns prepulse on the 20 MA, 100-ns rise time Z accelerator, AutoMag targets produced >150 T internal axial magnetic fields. Once the current rise rate of the pulsed power driver reaches sufficient magnitude, the induced electric fields in the liner cause dielectric breakdown of the insulator material and, with sufficient current, the cylindrical target radially implodes. The dielectric breakdown process of the insulating material in AutoMag liners has been studied in experiments on the 500–900 kA, ~100-ns rise time Mykonos accelerator. Multi-frame gated imaging enabled the first time-resolved observations of photoemission from dynamically evolving plasma distributions during the breakdown process in AutoMag targets. Using magnetohydrodynamic simulations, we calculate the induced electric field distribution and provide a detailed comparison to the experimental data. We find that breakdown in AutoMag targets does not primarily depend on the induced electric field in the gaps between conductive helices as previously thought. Finally, to better control the dielectric breakdown time, a 12–32 mJ, 170 ps ultraviolet (λ = 266 nm) laser was implemented to irradiate the outer surface of AutoMag targets to promote breakdown in a controlled manner at a lower internal axial field. Here, the laser had an observable effect on the time of breakdown and subsequent plasma evolution, indicating that pulsed UV lasers can be used to control breakdown timing in AutoMag.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗