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Mechanical Design of Spacecraft

In the spring of 1962, engineers from the Engineering Mechanics Division of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory gave a series of lectures on spacecraft design at the Engineering Design seminars conducted at the California Institute of Technology. Several of these lectures were subsequently given at Stanford University as part of the Space Technology seminar series sponsored by the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Presented here are notes taken from these lectures. The lectures were conceived with the intent of providing the audience with a glimpse of the activities of a few mechanical engineers who are involved in designing, building, and testing spacecraft. Engineering courses generally consist of heavily idealized problems in order to allow the more efficient teaching of mathematical technique. Students, therefore, receive a somewhat limited exposure to actual engineering problems, which are typified by more unknowns than equations. For this reason it was considered valuable to demonstrate some of the problems faced by spacecraft designers, the processes used to arrive at solutions, and the interactions between the engineer and the remainder of the organization in which he is constrained to operate. These lecture notes are not so much a compilation of sophisticated techniques of analysis as they are a collection of examples of spacecraft hardware and associated problems. They will be of interest not so much to the experienced spacecraft designer as to those who wonder what part the mechanical engineer plays in an effort such as the exploration of space.

STRUCTURAL MATERIAL↗

Crack propagation at stresses below the fatigue limit.

Crack propagation for stainless steel and Ti alloy at stresses below fatigue limit, noting of alternating stress cycles crack propagation for stainless steel and Ti alloy at stresses below fatigue limit, noting role of alternating stress cycles

STAINLESS STEEL↗

Test and Evaluation of the Surveyor 3 Television Camera Returned from the Moon by Apollo 12

Results are presented of engineering tests of the Surveyor III television camera, which resided on the moon for 2 and 1/2 years before being brought back to earth by the Apollo XII astronauts. Electric circuits, electrical, mechanical, and optical components and subsystems, the vidicon tube, and a variety of internal materials and surface coatings were examined to determine the effects of lunar exposure. Anomalies and failures uncovered were analyzed. For the most part, the camera parts withstood the extreme environment exceedingly well except where degradation of obsolete parts or suspect components had been anticipated. No significant evidence of cold welding was observed, and the anomalies were largely attributable to causes other than lunar exposure. Very little evidence of micrometeoroid impact was noted. Discoloration of material surfaces -- one of the major effects noted--was found to be due to lunar dust contamination and radiation damage. The extensive test data contained in this report are supplemented by results of tests of other Surveyor parts retrieved by the Apollo XII astronauts, which are contained in a companion report.

Source record↗

Observations of actively forming lava tubes and associated structures, Hawaii, part 2

A ground examination is made of lave tubes and channels. The surface morphology and the changes noted through lava flow activity are cited, and compared to earlier aerial observations. The lava activity was believed to be caused by a small lava lake exposed by the collapse of a crust covering it. Drainage of the lake was caused by a fissure erruption. New tubes or extensions of existing ones were noted from the flow. Molten lava was not seen in any tubes examined on the ground, but some of the flows were not sufficiently cooled to allow subsurface examination and survey of the tubes.

Greeley, R.↗

Apollo 11 lunar photography

A data user's note is presented which announces the availability of the complete set of Apollo 11 pictorial data and aids investigators in the selection of Apollo 11 photographs for study. In addition, this note provides guidance in the interpretation of the photographs. As background information, brief descriptions of the Apollo 11 mission objectives, photographic equipment, and photographic coverage and quality are included. The National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) can provide all forms of photographs described in the section on format of available data.

Anderson, A. T.↗

Influence of restraint and thermal exposure on welds in T-111 and ASTAR-811C

The notched-tensile, tensile, and bend properties of GTA welds in T-111 and ASTAR-811C sheet were determined following a wide range of thermal exposures in order to define changes in ductility and mechanical property behavior due to weld aging response. No notch sensitivity or unusual tensile response was noted for any of the conditions evaluated. An aging response was noted for the bend ductile-brittle transition temperature determinations on both T-111 and ASTAR-811C welds. A tentative explanation for the observed response of each alloy is presented. In addition, the interrelationship of mechanical and chemical factors leading to underbead cracking in T-111 was investigated. The problem was shown to be amenable primarily to chemical solutions, such as alloy compositional changes. This was demonstrated by the improved performance of ASTAR-811C over T-111 in plate weld studies. Only modest success was achieved using procedural techniques as a means of eliminating underbead cracking.

Gold, R. E.↗

Flight-determined derivatives and dynamic characteristics for the HL-10 lifting body vehicle at subsonic and transonic Mach numbers

The HL-10 lifting body stability and control derivatives were determined by using an analog-matching technique and compared with derivatives obtained from wind-tunnel results. The flight derivatives were determined as a function of angle of attack for a subsonic configuration at Mach 0.7 and for a transonic configuration at Mach 0.7, 0.9, and 1.2. At an angle of attack of 14 deg, data were obtained for a Mach number range from 0.6 to 1.4. The flight and wind-tunnel derivatives were in general agreement, with the possible exception of the longitudinal and lateral damping derivatives. Some differences were noted between the vehicle dynamic response characteristics calculated from flight-determined derivatives and those predicted by the wind-tunnel results. However, the only difference the pilots noted between the response of the vehicle in flight and the response of a simulator programed with wind-tunnel-predicted data was that the damping generally was higher in the flight vehicle.

Strutz, L. W.↗

Weldability, strength, and high temperature stability of chemically vapor deposited tungsten

Three types of CVD tungsten (fluoride-produced, chloride-produced and the combination of the two which is termed duplex) were evaluated to determine their weldability, high temperature strength and structural stability during 5000 hour exposure to temperatures of 1540 C and 1700 C. Each type of CVD tungsten could be successfully electron beam welded but the results for the chloride product were not as satisfactory as those of the other two materials. The high temperature strength behavior of the three materials did not differ greatly. However a large difference was noted for the grain growth behavior of the two basic CVD tungsten materials. Fluoride tungsten was found to be relatively stable while for the most part the grain size of chloride tungsten increased appreciably. The examination of freshly fractured surfaces with a scanning electron microscope revealed numerous bubbles in the fluoride material following its exposure to 1700 C for 5000 hours. Less severe thermal treatments produced relatively few bubbles in this material. Only at certain locations within the chloride material associated with the interruption of tungsten were bubbles noted.

Bryant, W. A.↗

Docking system of androgynous and peripheral type

Soviet and American space engineers have proceeded with creating compatible means for closing and docking spacecraft. It was decided to make a new advanced docking system of a peripheral and androgynous type. Because of a more complex design of the new-type docking mechanism, a number of technical problems arose. To a great extent, the solution of these problems depends on a chosen concept of the docking mechanism. The report deals with the docking system concept accepted by the Soviet engineers as the basis for further development. The description and structural arrangement of the docking system as a whole, its basic assemblies, and a kinematic scheme of the docking mechanism using a system of differentials are given. It should be noted that the experience that was gained from the development of previous docking systems was used to create a new type of docking system. The main problems to be solved in the course of designing and developing the advanced system are noted.

Syromyatnikov, V. S.↗

Program analysis for documentation

A program analysis for documentation (PAD) written in FORTRAN has three steps: listing the variables, describing the structure and writing the program specifications. Technical notes on editing criteria for reviewing program documentation, technical notes for PAD, and FORTRAN program analyzer for documentation are appended.

Lolmaugh, G. H.↗

Extended ion pumped vacuum friction test

Boundary layer friction data under ion pumped vacuum was taken for sixteen material couples. The test series was an extension of a previous study of the effects of modified ion pumped environments. Sliding distances imposed in the present effort greatly exceeded any studied in the previous contiguous, flight or ground tests. Wear out of specific couples, in particular, thin film lubricants was noted. The behavior of the test hardware including wear out of the mechanisms was noted. As a result, the impact of test interruption was observed for several test couples. Recovery of the friction upon re-establishing sliding in vacuum was generally rapid. The results of the extended sliding study reinforce the previous conclusion that sliding distance (mechanical history) is the primary factor in establishing the force limiting boundary layer friction. General friction value under the extended sliding confirm those observed in previous orbital and the related ground test studies.

Hammel, R. L.↗

A study of numerical methods of solution of the equations of motion of a controlled satellite under the influence of gravity gradient torque

Numerical methods of integration of the equations of motion of a controlled satellite under the influence of gravity-gradient torque are considered. The results of computer experimentation using a number of Runge-Kutta, multi-step, and extrapolation methods for the numerical integration of this differential system are presented, and particularly efficient methods are noted. A large bibliography of numerical methods for initial value problems for ordinary differential equations is presented, and a compilation of Runge-Kutta and multistep formulas is given. Less common numerical integration techniques from the literature are noted for further consideration.

Thompson, J. F.↗

Application of EREP imagery to fracture-related mine safety hazards and environmental problems in mining

The author has identified the following significant results. Numerous fracture traces were detected on both the color transparencies and black and white spectral bands. Fracture traces of value to mining hazards analysis were noted on the EREP imagery which could not be detected on either the ERTS-1 or high altitude aircraft color infrared photography. Several areas of mine subsidence occurring in the Busseron Creek area near Sullivan, Indiana were successfully identified using color photography. Skylab photography affords an increase over comparable scale ERTS-1 imagery in level of information obtained in mined lands inventory and reclamation analysis. A review of EREP color photography permitted the identification of a substantial number of non-fuel mines within the Southern Indiana test area. A new mine was detected on the EREP photography without prior data. EREP has definite value for estimating areal changes in active mines and for detecting new non-fuel mines. Gob piles and slurry ponds of several acres could be detected on the S-190B color photography when observed in association with large scale mining operations. Apparent degradation of water quality resulting from acid mine drainage and/or siltation was noted in several ponds or small lakes and appear to be related to intensive mining activity near Sullivan, Indiana.

Wier, C. E.↗

An experimental investigation of two-phase liquid oxygen pumping

The results of an experimental program to explore the feasibility of pumping two-phase oxygen (liquid and gas) at the pump inlet are reported. Twenty-one cavitation tests were run on a standard J-2 oxygen pump at the MSFC Components Test Laboratory. All tests were run with liquid oxygen 5 to 10 K above the normal boiling point temperature. During ten tests run at approximately at the pump inlet were noted before complete pump performance 50 percent of the nominal operating speed, two phase conditions were achieved. Vapor volumes of 40 to 50 percent at the pump inlet were noted before complete pump performance loss. The experimental results compared to predictions. Nine cavitation tests run at the nominal pump speed over a 5 K temperature range showed progressively lower net positive suction head (NPSH) requirements as temperature was increased. Two-phase operation was not achieved. The temperature varying NPSH data were used to calculate thermodynamic effects on NPSH, and the results were compared to existing data.

Gross, L. A.↗

Response of tobacco tissue cultures growing in contact with lunar fines.

During the quarantine periods following each Apollo mission to the moon, various biological systems were placed in the presence of lunar material to determine if pathogenic agents were present. Although no detrimental effects resulted, various responses by the several plant systems tested were noted. One such response was the increased pigmentation observed in the callus tissue cultures of tobacco. Further investigations revealed that these tissues grown in the presence of lunar material resulted in as much as a 35% increase in total pigments while differences in fatty acid and sterol concentrations were also noted when compared to the controls. It is believed that these changes brought about by the lunar material can be attributed to a change in the nutritional environment caused by its dissolution.

Weete, J. D.↗

Does spectroscopic evidence require two scattering layers in the Venus atmosphere.

Comments on Hunt's (1972) conclusion that the phase variation of lines in the 7820- and 7883-A CO2 bands is due to the presence of two scattering layers in the Venusian atmosphere. It is shown that the increase of equivalent width with phase between 0 and 90 deg noted by Hunt in the data by Gray Young et al. (1971) does not necessarily require a two-layer model of scattering in the Venusian atmosphere and that this increase may be due to the strong backward lobe in the Venusian cloud phase function. Hunt, in a reply, notes that Regas et al. incorrectly use in their analysis Hansen's (1969) data which are for a homogeneous planetary atmosphere, while Hunt used an inhomogeneous model of the Venusian atmosphere. In addition, further evidence to support Hunt's claim for a multilayered structure of the upper Venusian clouds is presented.

Regas, J. L.↗

Urban and regional land use analysis: CARETS and Census Cities experiment package

The author has identified the following significant results. Areas of post 1970 and 1972 land use changes were identified solely from the Skylab imagery from comparisons with 1970 land use maps. Most land use changes identified involved transition from agriculture to single family residential land use. The second most prominent changes identified from the Skylab imagery were areas presently under construction. Post 1970 changes from Skylab were compared with the 1972 changes noted from the high altitude photographs. A good correlation existed between the change polygons mapped from Skylab and those mapped from the 1972 high altitude aerial photos. In addition, there were a number of instances where additional built-up land use not noted in the 1972 aerial photo as being developed were identified on the Skylab imagery. While these cases have not been documented by field observation, by correlating these areas with the appearance of similar land use areas whose identity has been determined, we can safely say that we have been able to map further occurrences of land use change beyond existing high altitude photo coverage from the Skylab imagery. It was concluded that Skylab data can be used to detect areas of land use change within an urban setting.

Alexander, R. H.↗

The noise environment of a school classroom due to the operation of utility helicopters

Noise measurements under controlled conditions have been made inside and outside of a school building during flyover operations of four different helicopters. The helicopters were operated at a condition considered typical for a police patrol mission. Flyovers were made at an altitude of 500 ft and an airspeed of 45 miles per hour. During these operations acoustic measurements were made inside and outside of the school building with the windows closed and then open. The outside noise measurements during helicopter flyovers indicate that the outside db(A) levels were approximately the same for all test helicopters. For the windows closed case, significant reductions for the inside measured db(A) values were noted for all overflights. These reductions were approximately 20 db(A); similar reductions were noted in other subjective measuring units. The measured internal db(A) levels with the windows open exceeded published classroom noise criteria values; however, for the windows-closed case they are in general agreement with the criteria values.

Hilton, D. A.↗