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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2013

Swirl Coaxial Injector Testing with LOX/RP-J

Testing was conducted at NASA fs Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in the fall of 2012 to evaluate the operation and performance of liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene (RP ]1) in an existing swirl coaxial injector. While selected Russian engines use variations of swirl coaxial injectors, component level performance data has not been readily available, and all previously documented component testing at MSFC with LOX/RP ]1 had been performed using a variety of impinging injector designs. Impinging injectors have been adequate for specific LOX/RP ]1 engine applications, yet swirl coaxial injectors offer easier fabrication efforts, providing cost and schedule savings for hardware development. Swirl coaxial elements also offer more flexibility for design changes. Furthermore, testing with LOX and liquid methane propellants at MSFC showed that a swirl coaxial injector offered improved performance compared to an impinging injector. So, technical interest was generated to see if similar performance gains could be achieved with LOX/RP ]1 using a swirl coaxial injector. Results would allow such injectors to be considered for future engine concepts that require LOX/RP ]1 propellants. Existing injector and chamber hardware was used in the test assemblies. The injector had been tested in previous programs at MSFC using LOX/methane and LOX/hydrogen propellants. Minor modifications were made to the injector to accommodate the required LOX/RP ]1 flows. Mainstage tests were performed over a range of chamber pressures and mixture ratios. Additional testing included detonated gbombs h for stability data. Test results suggested characteristic velocity, C*, efficiencies for the injector were 95 ]97%. The injector also appeared dynamically stable with quick recovery from the pressure perturbations generated in the bomb tests.

Greene, Sandra Elam↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Advanced Materials for the Lunar Surface: Multiscale Computational Design of Refractory Alloys and Carbides

Emerging operational environments, such as the lunar surface, present novel challenges for NASA and drive the need for advanced materials in applications like fission surface power systems. To address these demands, computational materials science is rapidly evolving to augment or replace costly and hazardous empirical testing. Although materials selection at NASA remains predominantly experimentally driven, advanced simulation methodologies are being steadily integrated into the engineering lifecycle. This work details the application of multiscale simulation techniques—including first-principles calculations, CALPHAD, dislocation dynamics, and molecular dynamics—at NASA's Ames Research Center to evaluate advanced materials for extreme environments. First, we present contributions to the Space Nuclear Propulsion Project. Be-cause propellant channel coatings in nuclear thermal rockets must withstand high-pressure, high-temperature hydro-gen, optimizing these materials is critical. First-principles calculations were employed to establish a rigorous quantitative and qualitative understanding of the behavior of the refractory carbides ZrC, NbC, and their mixtures in high-enthalpy hydrogen environments. This necessitated the generation of high-fidelity thermodynamic models for both stoichiometric and carbon-depleted carbides, both with and without the presence of hydrogen. Furthermore, we highlight efforts under the Refractory Alloy Additive Manufacturing Build Optimization (RAAMBO) project, where existing and novel alloy compositions were assessed for additive manufacturing printability and subsequent performance in applications such as heat pipes and rocket nozzle extensions. This was accomplished through a comprehensive multiscale simulation framework that bridged the gap from the nanometer to the millimeter scale. Across both initiatives, rigorous validation against empirical data was prioritized. By systematically employing a verified and validated computational frame-work, we demonstrate how simulation effectively supports multidisciplinary engineering efforts, builds project-wide confidence, and drives critical materials development.

computational materials↗
NASA NTRS2024

Carbothermal Reduction Demonstration (CaRD) Gas Analysis Subsystem Development

The Carbothermal Reduction Demonstration (CaRD) project is currently developing a subscale system to demonstrate the operation and performance of the carbothermal reduction process and quantify the production of molar equivalent oxygen via carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Traditionally, gas chromatography (GC) systems are utilized to quantify gases due to their ability to separate volatile compounds within the gas mixture, followed by detection of the isolated component of interest. Despite their capabilities, GCs require carrier gas consumables for their operational mobile phase and consequently are not often considered a flight-forward option. An alternative analytical technique known as mass spectrometry measures the presence of gas phase molecules without the need of carrier gas. Residual gas analyzers (RGAs), which are smaller and rugged mass spectrometers, are not traditionally used to quantify analytes as they serve more as a monitoring tool. However, proper application and calibration can result in a flight-forward analytical instrument capable of direct quantification of volatile compounds of interest. Kennedy Space Center's role for the JSC led CaRD project is to design a gas analyzer system to detect and quantify the CO and CO2 gases produced during the carbothermal reaction utilizing a commercial version of the Mass Spectrometer observing lunar operations (MSolo) instrument. MSolo is a modified commercial off-the-shelf RGA, which consists of quadrupole mass filter and space rated electronics. MSolo is currently a TRL 6 technology and manifested on the PRIME-1 and VIPER missions. This paper describes leveraging MSolo based instrumentation to develop a gas analysis system for the work outlined in the 2023 International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES) paper number 313.

Ryan P Gott↗
NASA NTRS1992

Test results of the SHARE II Mid-deck Flight Experiment

The SHARE II (Space Station Advanced Radiator Experiment II) Mid-deck Experiment was flown on board the Space Shuttle (STS-37) from April 5 to 12, 1991. The purpose of the experiment was to demonstrate the operation of several design changes proposed for the NASA/Grumman SHARE II heat pipe as a result of the lessons learned during the first SHARE flight (STS-29) in March 1989. Two test articles flew during the mission. The first, the Bubble Management Test Article, was a Plexiglas model of the monogroove heat pipe. This test article was primarily used to evaluate the performance of two 0-g bubble management devices; the redesigned evaporator screen artery and the condenser bubble trap. The second, the Blended Manifold Priming Test Article, also constructed of Plexiglas, was used to demonstrate passive self-priming of a heat pipe blended manifold connecting three evaporator legs to a single condenser leg. Both test articles used a 50/50 mixture of ethanol and water as the working fluid. Overall, the experiment was highly successful, with all the major test objectives fulfilled, including blended manifold priming, condenser bubble trap operation, screen artery bubble ingestion, and elimination of hydraulic diameter mismatch.

Brown, Richard F.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Robust Exploration and Commercial Missions to the Moon Using LANTR Propulsion and Lunar Liquid Oxygen Derived from FeO-Rich Pyroclastic Deposits

The nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) has frequently been identified as a key space asset required for the human exploration of Mars. This proven technology can also provide the affordable access through cislunar space necessary for commercial development and sustained human presence on the Moon. It is a demonstrated technology capable of generating both high thrust and high specific impulse (Isp approx.900 s) twice that of todays best chemical rockets. Nuclear lunar transfer vehicles consisting of a propulsion stage using three approx.16.5 klbf Small Nuclear Rocket Engines (SNREs), an in-line propellant tank, plus the payload can enable a variety of reusable lunar missions. These include cargo delivery and crewed lunar landing missions. Even weeklong tourism missions carrying passengers into lunar orbit for a day of sightseeing and picture taking are possible. The NTR can play an important role in the next phase of lunar exploration and development by providing a robust in-space lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supported by a variety of commercial activities such as in-situ propellant production used to supply strategically located propellant depots and transportation nodes. The use of lunar liquid oxygen (LLO2) derived from iron oxide (FeO)-rich volcanic glass beads, found in numerous pyroclastic deposits on the Moon, can significantly reduce the launch mass requirements from Earth by enabling reusable, surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs) using liquid oxygen/hydrogen (LO2/H2) chemical rocket engines. Afterwards, a LO2/H2 propellant depot can be established in lunar equatorial orbit to supply the LTS. At this point a modified version of the conventional NTR called the LOX-augmented NTR, or LANTR is introduced into the LTS allowing bipropellant operation and leveraging the mission benefits of refueling with lunar-derived propellants for Earth return. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes the large divergent section of its nozzle as an afterburner into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with nuclear preheated hydrogen emerging from the engines choked sonic throat - essentially scramjet propulsion in reverse. By varying the oxygen-to-hydrogen mixture ratio, LANTR engines can operate over a range of thrust and Isp values while the reactor core power level remains relatively constant. A LANTR-based LTS offers unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even a commuter shuttle service may be possible allowing one-way trip times to and from the Moon on the order of 36 hours or less. If only 1 of the extracted LLO2 propellant from identified resource sites were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support daily commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years! The proposed paper outlines an evolutionary architecture and examines a variety of mission types and transfer vehicle designs, along with the increasing demands on LLO2 production as mission complexity and (Delta)V requirements increase. A comparison of vehicle features and engine operating characteristics, for both NTR and LANTR engines, is also provided along with a discussion of the propellant production and mining requirements associated with using FeO-rich volcanic glass as source material.

Nuclear rocket engines↗
NASA NTRS2016

Active Control of pH in the Bioculture System Through Carbon Dioxide Control

For successful cell research, the growth culture environment must be tightly controlled. Deviance from the optimal conditions will mask the desired variable being analyzed or lead to inconstancies in the results. In standard laboratories, technology and procedures are readily available for the reliable control of variables such as temperature, pH, nutrient loading, and dissolved gases. Due to the nature of spaceflight, and the inherent constraints to engineering designs, these same elements become a challenge to maintain at stable values by both automated and manual approaches. Launch mass, volume, and power usage create significant constraints to cell culture systems; nonetheless, innovative solutions for active environmental controls are available. The acidity of the growth media cannot be measured through standard probes due to the degradation of electrodes and reliance on indicators for chromatography. Alternatively, carbon dioxide sensors are capable of monitoring the pH by leveraging the relationship between the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid in solution across a membrane. In microgravity cell growth systems, the gas delivery system can be used to actively maintain the media at the proper acidity by maintaining a suitable gas mixture around permeable tubing. Through this method, launch mass and volume are significantly reduced through the efficient use of the limited gas supply in orbit.

cell growth↗
NASA NTRS1991

Airborne coherent continuous wave CO2 Doppler lidars for aerosol backscatter measurement

Two focused coherent, continuous wave (CW) lidars have been developed by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) for airborne and ground-based measurement of aerosol backscatter coefficients. The first of these instruments uses a mixture of CO2 and other gases, and measures backscatter at 10.6 m. The second lidar uses an isotope of carbon dioxide, which enables lasing at 9.1 m. The 10.6 m backscatter measurement serves as a reference to allow variations in backscatter due to aerosol concentration to be distinguished from variations due to spectral variability. The 10.6 m lidar has been used in airborne field programs since 1981. Development of the 9.1 m lidar was completed in early 1989. Recently, both lidars were flown on the NASA/Ames Research Center DC-8 research aircraft in the remote Pacific Basin as part of the NASA GLObal Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) survey missions. The GLOBE program, of which the survey missions are the centerpieces, supports design and simulation studies for NASA's prospective Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder (LAWS).

Rothermel, Jeffry↗
NASA NTRS2018

Robust Exploration and Commercial Missions to the Moon Using Nuclear Thermal Rocket Propulsion and Lunar Liquid Oxygen Derived from FeO-Rich Pyroclasitc Deposits

The nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) has frequently been identified as a key space asset required for the human exploration of Mars. This proven technology can also provide the affordable access through cislunar space necessary for commercial development and sustained human presence on the Moon. It is a demonstrated technology capable of generating both high thrust and high specific impulse (I(sub sp) approx. 900 s) twice that of today's best chemical rockets. Nuclear lunar transfer vehicles-consisting of a propulsion stage using three approx. 16.5-klb(sub f) small nuclear rocket engines (SNREs), an in-line propellant tank, plus the payload-are reusable, enabling a variety of lunar missions. These include cargo delivery and crewed lunar landing missions. Even weeklong ''tourism'' missions carrying passengers into lunar orbit for a day of sightseeing and picture taking are possible. The NTR can play an important role in the next phase of lunar exploration and development by providing a robust in-space lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supported by a variety of commercial activities such as in-situ propellant production used to supply strategically located propellant depots and transportation nodes. The use of lunar liquid oxygen (LLO2) derived from iron oxide (FeO)-rich volcanic glass beads, found in numerous pyroclastic deposits on the Moon, can significantly reduce the launch mass requirements from Earth by enabling reusable, surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs)that use liquid oxygen and hydrogen (LO2/LH2) chemical rocket engines. Afterwards, a LO2/LH2 propellant depot can be established in lunar equatorial orbit to supply the LTS. At this point a modified version of the conventional NTR-called the LO2-augmented NTR, or LANTR-is introduced into the LTS allowing bipropellant operation and leveraging the mission benefits of refueling with lunar-derived propellants for Earth return. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes the large divergent section of its nozzle as an ''afterburner'' into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with nuclear preheated hydrogen emerging from the engine's choked sonic throat-essentially ''scramjet propulsion in reverse.'' By varying the oxygen-to-hydrogen mixture ratio, LANTR engines can operate over a range of thrust and I(sub sp) values while the reactor core power level remains relatively constant. A LANTR-based LTS offers unique mission capabilities including short-transit-time crewed cargo transports. Even a ''commuter'' shuttle service may be possible allowing ''one-way'' trip times to and from the Moon on the order of 36 hours or less. If only 1% of the extracted LLO2 propellant from identified resource sites were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support daily commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years! This report outlines an evolutionary architecture and examines a variety of mission types and transfer vehicle designs, along with the increasing demands on LLO2 production as mission complexity and velocity change delta V requirements increase. A comparison of vehicle features and engine operating characteristics, for both NTR and LANTR engines, is also provided along with a discussion of the propellant production and mining requirements associated with using FeO-rich volcanic glass as source material.

rocket↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Computational Approaches for Li-O2 Battery Design

Threshold energy densities for general aviation electric aircraft are 400 Wh/kg with more ambitious air vehicles having significantly higher requirements. Li-O2 batteries, with the highest theoretical capacity, are one of the few “beyond Li-ion” chemistries that might satisfy the extraordinary specific capacity as well as specific power requirements of electric aircraft. However, side reactions at interfaces, in particular at the cathode, over the charge-discharge cycles result in very short cycle-life and dramatic reduction of capacity. Addressing these issues, in addition to others, are crucial for realizing practical, high performance Li-O2 batteries. In this talk, we discuss atomistic computational work to understand and mitigate some of the issues, including those at interfaces, that affect the Li-O2 electrochemistry. To start, we discuss the deposition mechanisms, both surface and solution based, of Li2O2 and their dependence on external potential. Next, we explore molten salt electrolytes as a stable alternative to organic electrolytes and approaches taken to develop new practical molten salt eutectic mixtures. Finally, we address the issue of reactive carbon-cathodes and possible cathode-candidates that were identified throughput high-throughput computations.

Li-Air battery↗
NASA NTRS1999

A Study of Mars Dust Environment Simulation at NASA Johnson Space Center Energy Systems Test Area Resource Conversion Test Facility

The dust environment on Mars is planned to be simulated in a 20 foot thermal-vacuum chamber at the Johnson Space Center, Energy Systems Test Area Resource Conversion Test Facility in Houston, Texas. This vacuum chamber will be used to perform tests and study the interactions between the dust in Martian air and ISPP hardware. This project is to research, theorize, quantify, and document the Mars dust/wind environment needed for the 20 foot simulation chamber. This simulation work is to support the safety, endurance, and cost reduction of the hardware for the future missions. The Martian dust environment conditions is discussed. Two issues of Martian dust, (1) Dust Contamination related hazards, and (2) Dust Charging caused electrical hazards, are of our interest. The different methods of dust particles measurement are given. The design trade off and feasibility were studied. A glass bell jar system is used to evaluate various concepts for the Mars dust/wind environment simulation. It was observed that the external dust source injection is the best method to introduce the dust into the simulation system. The dust concentration of 30 Mg/M3 should be employed for preparing for the worst possible Martian atmosphere condition in the future. Two approaches thermal-panel shroud for the hardware conditioning are discussed. It is suggested the wind tunnel approach be used to study the dust charging characteristics then to be apply to the close-system cyclone approach. For the operation cost reduction purpose, a dehumidified ambient air could be used to replace the expensive CO2 mixture for some tests.

Chen, Yuan-Liang Albert↗
NASA NTRS1999

Detailed Multidimensional Simulations of the Structure and Dynamics of Flames

Numerical simulations in which the various physical and chemical processes can be independently controlled can significantly advance our understanding of the structure, stability, dynamics and extinction of flames. Therefore, our approach has been to use detailed time-dependent, multidimensional, multispecies numerical models to perform carefully designed computational experiments of flames on Earth and in microgravity environments. Some of these computational experiments are complementary to physical experiments performed under the Microgravity Program while others provide a fundamental understanding that cannot be obtained from physical experiments alone. In this report, we provide a brief summary of our recent research highlighting the contributions since the previous microgravity combustion workshop. There are a number of mechanisms that can cause flame instabilities and result in the formation of dynamic multidimensional structures. In the past, we have used numerical simulations to show that it is the thermo-diffusive instability rather than an instability due to preferential diffusion that is the dominant mechanism for the formation of cellular flames in lean hydrogen-air mixtures. Other studies have explored the role of gravity on flame dynamics and extinguishment, multi-step kinetics and radiative losses on flame instabilities in rich hydrogen-air flames, and heat losses on burner-stabilized flames in microgravity. The recent emphasis of our work has been on exploring flame-vortex interactions and further investigating the structure and dynamics of lean hydrogen-air flames in microgravity. These topics are briefly discussed after a brief discussion of our computational approach for solving these problems.

Patnaik, G.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Isentropic Compression of Multicomponent Mixtures of Fuels and Inert Gases

In selected aerospace applications of the fuels hydrazine and monomethythydrazine, there occur conditions which can result in the isentropic compression of a multicomponent mixture of fuel and inert gas. One such example is when a driver gas such as helium comes out of solution and mixes with the fuel vapor, which is being compressed. A second example is when product gas from an energetic device mixes with the fuel vapor which is being compressed. Thermodynamic analysis has shown that under isentropic compression, the fuels hydrazine and monomethylhydrazine must be treated as real fluids using appropriate equations of state. The appropriate equations of state are the Peng-Robinson equation of state for hydrazine and the Redlich-Kwong-Soave equation of state for monomethylhydrazine. The addition of an inert gas of variable quantity and input temperature and pressure to the fuel compounds the problem for safety design or analysis. This work provides the appropriate thermodynamic analysis of isentropic compression of the two examples cited. In addition to an entropy balance describing the change of state, an enthalpy balance is required. The presence of multicomponents in the system requires that appropriate mixing rules are identified and applied to the analysis. This analysis is not currently available.

Barragan, Michelle↗
NASA NTRS2018

Robust Exploration and Commercial Missions to the Moon Using Nuclear Thermal Rocket Propulsion and In Situ Propellants Derived from Lunar Polar Ice Deposits

The nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) has frequently been identified as a key space asset required for the human exploration of Mars. This proven technology can also provide the affordable “access through cislunar space” necessary for commercial development and sustained human presence on the Moon. It is a demonstrated technology capable of generating both high thrust and high specific impulse (I(sub sp) ~900 s)— twice that of today’s best chemical rockets. Nuclear lunar transfer vehicles—consisting of a propulsion stage using three ~16.5-klb(sub f) small nuclear rocket engines (SNREs), an in-line propellant tank, plus the payload—can enable a variety of reusable lunar missions. These include cargo delivery and crewed lunar landing missions. Even weeklong “tourism” missions carrying passengers into lunar orbit for a day of sightseeing and picture taking are possible. The NTR can play an important role in the next phase of lunar exploration and development by providing a robust in-space lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supported by a variety of commercial activities such as in situ propellant production used to supply strategically located propellant depots and transportation nodes. The processing of lunar polar ice (LPI) deposits (estimated to be ~2 billion metric tons) for propellant production—specifically liquid oxygen (LO(sub 2)) and hydrogen (LH(sub 2))—can significantly reduce the launch mass requirements from Earth and can enable reusable, surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs) using LO(sub 2)/LH(sub 2) chemical rocket engines. Afterwards, LO(sub 2)/LH(sub 2) propellant depots can be established in lunar polar and equatorial orbits to supply the LTS. At this point a modified version of the conventional NTR called the LO(sub 2)-augmented NTR, or LANTR, would be introduced into the LTS, allowing bipropellant operation and leveraging the mission benefits of refueling with lunar-derived propellants (LDPs) for Earth return. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes the large divergent section of its nozzle as an “afterburner” into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with nuclear preheated hydrogen emerging from the engine’s choked sonic throat—essentially “scramjet propulsion in reverse.” By varying the oxygen-to-hydrogen mixture ratio, LANTR engines can operate over a range of thrust and I(sub sp) values while the reactor core power level remains relatively constant. A LANTR-based LTS offers unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even a “commuter” shuttle service may be possible, allowing “one-way” trip times to and from the Moon on the order of 36 hr or less. If only 1% of the postulated trapped water ice were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support routine commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years. This report outlines an evolving LTS architecture that uses propellants derived from LPI and examines a variety of mission types and transfer vehicle designs along with their operating characteristics and increasing demands on LDP production as mission complexity and velocity change ΔV requirements increase. A comparison of the LDP production and mining requirements using LPI and volcanic glass to produce lunar-derived liquid oxygen (LUNOX) via the hydrogen reduction process is included, and the synergy with an evolving helium-3 mining industry is also discussed.

Borowski, Stanley K.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Robust Exploration and Commercial Missions to the Moon Using LANTR Propulsion and In-Situ Propellants Derived from Lunar Polar Ice (LPI) Deposits

The nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) has frequently been identified as a key space asset required for the human exploration of Mars. This proven technology can also provide the affordable access through cislunar space necessary for commercial development and sustained human presence on the Moon. It is a demonstrated technology capable of generating both high thrust and high specific impulse (Isp 900 s) twice that of todays best chemical rockets. Nuclear lunar transfer vehicles consisting of a propulsion stage using three approx.16.5 klbf "Small Nuclear Rocket Engines (SNREs)", an in-line propellant tank, plus the payload can enable a variety of reusable lunar missions. These include cargo delivery and crewed lunar landing missions. Even weeklong "tourism" missions carrying passengers into lunar orbit for a day of sightseeing and picture taking are possible. The NTR can play an important role in the next phase of lunar exploration and development by providing a robust in-space lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supported by a variety of commercial activities such as in-situ propellant production used to supply strategically located propellant depots and transportation nodes. The processing of LPI deposits (estimated to be approx. 2 billion metric tons) for propellant production - specifically liquid oxygen (LO2) and hydrogen (LH2) can significantly reduce the launch mass requirements from Earth and can enable reusable, surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs) using LO2/LH2 chemical rocket engines. Afterwards, LO2/LH2 propellant depots can be established in lunar polar and equatorial orbits to supply the LTS. At this point a modified version of the conventional NTR called the LO2-augmented NTR, or LANTR would be introduced into the LTS allowing bipropellant operation and leveraging the mission benefits of refueling with lunar-derived propellants (LDPs) for Earth return. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes the large divergent section of its nozzle as an afterburner into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with nuclear preheated hydrogen emerging from the engines choked sonic throat essentially scramjet propulsion in reverse. By varying the oxygen-to-hydrogen mixture ratio, LANTR engines can operate over a range of thrust and Isp values while the reactor core power level remains relatively constant. A LANTR-based LTS offers unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even a commuter shuttle service may be possible allowing one-way trip times to and from the Moon on the order of 36 hours or less. If only 1 of the postulated water ice trapped in deep shadowed craters at the lunar poles were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support daily commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years! The proposed paper outlines an evolutionary mission architecture and examines a variety of mission types and transfer vehicle designs, along with the increasing demands on LDP production as mission complexity and delta V requirements increase. A comparison of vehicle features and engine operating characteristics are also provided together with a discussion of the propellant production and mining requirements, and issues, associated with using LPI as the source material.

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion↗
NASA NTRS1980

Sintered silicon nitrode recuperator fabrication

The preliminary design and a demonstration of the feasibility of fabricating submodules of an automotive Stirling engine recuperator for waste heat recovery at 370 C are described. Sinterable silicon nitride (Sialon) tubing and plates were fabricated by extrusion and hydrostatic pressing, respectively, suitable for demonstrating a potential method of constructing ceramic recuperator-type heat exchangers. These components were fired in nitrogen atmosphere to 1800 C without significant scale formation so that they can be used in the as-fired condition. A refractory glass composition (Al2O3 x 4.5 CaO.MgO x 11SiO2) was used to join and seal component parts by a brazing technique which formed strong recuperator submodules capable of withstanding repeated thermal cycling to 1370 C. The corrosion resistance of these materials to Na2SO4 + NaCl carbon mixtures was also assessed in atmospheres of air, hydrogen and CO2-N2-H2O mixtures at both 870 C and 1370 C for times to 1000 hours. No significant reaction was observed under any of these test conditions.

Gatti, A.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Production of Oxygen from Lunar Regolith by Molten Oxide Electrolysis

This paper describes the use of the molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) process for the extraction of oxygen for life support and propellant, and silicon and metallic elements for use in fabrication on the Moon. The Moon is rich in mineral resources, but it is almost devoid of chemical reducing agents, therefore, molten oxide electrolysis is ideal for extraction, since the electron is the only practical reducing agent. MOE has several advantages over other extraction methods. First, electrolytic processing offers uncommon versatility in its insensitivity to feedstock composition. Secondly, oxide melts boast the twin key attributes of highest solubilizing capacity for regolith and lowest volatility of any candidate electrolytes. The former is critical in ensuring high productivity since cell current is limited by reactant solubility, while the latter simplifies cell design by obviating the need for a gas-tight reactor to contain evaporation losses as would be the case with a gas or liquid phase fluoride reagent operating at such high temperatures. Alternatively, MOE requires no import of consumable reagents (e.g. fluorine and carbon) as other processes do, and does not rely on interfacing multiple processes to obtain refined products. Electrolytic processing has the advantage of selectivity of reaction in the presence of a multi-component feed. Products from lunar regolith can be extracted in sequence according to the stabilities of their oxides as expressed by the values of the free energy of oxide formation (e.g. chromium, manganese, Fe, Si, Ti, Al, magnesium, and calcium). Previous work has demonstrated the viability of producing Fe and oxygen from oxide mixtures similar in composition to lunar regolith by molten oxide electrolysis (electrowinning), also called magma electrolysis having shown electrolytic extraction of Si from regolith simulant. This paper describes recent advances in demonstrating the MOE process by a joint project with participation by NASA KSC and MSFC, and Ohio State University and MIT. Progress in measuring cell efficiency for oxygen production, development of non reacting electrodes, and cell feeding and withdrawal will be discussed.

Curreri, Peter A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Thermal control systems for low-temperature heat rejection on a lunar base

In this report, Rankine-cycle heat pumps and absorption heat pumps (ammonia-water and lithium bromide-water) have been analyzed and optimized for a lunar base cooling load of 100 kW. For the Rankine cycle, a search of several commonly used commercial refrigerants provided R11 and R717 as possible working fluids. Hence, the Rankine-cycle analysis has been performed for both R11 and R717. Two different configurations were considered for the system--one in which the heat pump is directly connected to the rejection loop and another in which a heat exchanger connects the heat pump to the rejection loop. For a marginal increase in mass, the decoupling of the rejection loop and the radiator from the heat pump provides greater reliability of the system and better control. Hence, the decoupled system is the configuration of choice. The optimal TCS mass for a 100 kW cooling load at 270 K was 5940 kg at a radiator temperature of 362 K. R11 was the working fluid in the heat pump, and R717 was the transport fluid in the rejection loop. Two TCS's based on an absorption-cycle heat pump were considered, one with an ammonia-water mixture and the other with a lithium bromide-water mixture as the working fluid. A complete cycle analysis was performed for these systems. The system components were approximated as heat exchangers with no internal pressure drop for the mass estimate. This simple approach underpredicts the mass of the systems, but is a good 'optimistic' first approximation to the TCS mass in the absence of reliable component mass data. The mass estimates of the two systems reveal that, in spite of this optimistic estimate, the absorption heat pumps are not competitive with the Rankine-cycle heat pumps. Future work at the systems level will involve similar analyses for the Brayton- and Stirling-cycle heat pumps. The analyses will also consider the operation of the pump under partial-load conditions. On the component level, a capillary evaporator will be designed, built, and tested in order to investigate its suitability in lunar base TCS and microgravity two-phase applications.

Sridhar, K. R.↗
NASA NTRS2007

High-Temperature Desulfurization of Heavy Fuel-Derived Reformate Gas Streams for SOFC Applications

Desulfurization of the hot reformate gas produced by catalytic partial oxidation or autothermal reforming of heavy fuels, such as JP-8 and jet fuels, is required prior to using the gas in a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). Development of suitable sorbent materials involves the identification of sorbents with favorable sulfidation equilibria, good kinetics, and high structural stability and regenerability at the SOFC operating temperatures (650 to 800 C). Over the last two decades, a major barrier to the development of regenerable desulfurization sorbents has been the gradual loss of sorbent performance in cyclic sulfidation and regeneration at such high temperatures. Mixed oxide compositions based on ceria were examined in this work as regenerable sorbents in simulated reformate gas mixtures and temperatures greater than 650 C. Regeneration was carried out with dilute oxygen streams. We have shown that under oxidative regeneration conditions, high regeneration space velocities (greater than 80,000 h(sup -1)) can be used to suppress sulfate formation and shorten the total time required for sorbent regeneration. A major finding of this work is that the surface of ceria and lanthanan sorbents can be sulfided and regenerated completely, independent of the underlying bulk sorbent. This is due to reversible adsorption of H2S on the surface of these sorbents even at temperatures as high as 800 C. La-rich cerium oxide formulations are excellent for application to regenerative H2S removal from reformate gas streams at 650 to 800 C. These results create new opportunities for compact sorber/regenerator reactor designs to meet the requirements of solid oxide fuel cell systems at any scale.

Flytzani-Stephanopoulos, Maria↗