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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Astrobee ISS Free Flyers: Overview and Enabling Technologies

The Astrobee robots began operations on the International Space Station (ISS) in April of 2019. These 32-cm-wide, 9-kg, cube-shaped free flyers are capable of autonomously traversing the US Orbital Segment of ISS and performing tasks to assist astronauts in their day-to-day activities. The Astrobee Facility also provides an on-orbit testbed for guest scientists desiring to try new technologies in zero-g. This presentation will provide an overview of the Astrobee system and some of its key enabling technologies, including propulsion, navigation, and human interfaces. Additional information and publications can be found on the Astrobee website: https://www.nasa.gov/astrobee.

Astrobee↗

NASA NTRS2020

Optical Characterization of Laser Retroreflector Arrays for Lunar Landers

Laser Retroreflector Array for Lunar Landers (LRALL) is a small optical instrument designed to provide a target for precision laser ranging from a spacecraft in lunar orbit, enabling geolocation of the lander and its instrument suite and establishing a fiducial maker on the lunar surface. Here we describe the optical performance of LRALL at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. Individual corner cube reflectors (CCRs) within LRALL were tested for surface flatness and dihedral angle values. We also imaged the far-field diffraction patterns of individual CCRs as well as the entire retroreflector array over the range of possible incident angles to extract the optical cross section as a function of viewing angle. We also measured the optical properties of one of the CCRs over the lunar temperature range (100 K to 380 K) and found no significant temperature-dependent variance. The test results show LRALL meets the design criteria and can be ranged to from elevation angles above 30° with respect to the instrument base from an orbital laser altimeter such as the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). This work summarizes the test data and serves as a guide for future laser ranging to these retroreflector arrays.

Daniel R Cremons↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Hydrogen Peroxide-Water-Ethanol Monopropellant Blend for CubeSat Propulsion

Monopropellant propulsion that provides high performance and low hazards compared to state-of-art hydrazine are being investigated under NASA, DOD and commercially sponsored green propellant research and development programs. This NASA effort looks at phosphate stabilized 50% hydrogen peroxide/water –ethanol blends to evaluate their stability and combustion behavior in submillimeter diameter microtube combustion apparatus for cubesat propulsion applications. Exploratory 7-day stability tests find no pressure rise in a sealed test tube environment at room temperature indicating at least short term stability of the mixture. Temperature rise during combustion testing in resistively heated nickel microtube apparatus shows that micro-combustion is achieved in the tube. Propellant density is approximately 1.2 g/cu.cm compared to 1.0 g/cu.cm for hydrazine. Theoretical specific impulse of the stoichiometric blend is 219 s at a chamber pressure of 20 psia and an area ratio of 30:1. Density-specific impulse of this blend is 263 s while hydrazine is only about 215-220 s in small reaction control system thrusters. This provides about 20-22% more density-specific impulse for the cube sat compared to hydrazine. The the oretical combustion temperature is 2168°F, which is thermally compatible with stainless steel materials of construction and the nickel catalyst used in the tests. Combustion test results are given for stoichiometric, as well as fuel-lean and fuel-rich propellant formulations. These tests focus on thermally and catalytically supported combustion in the microtube, which requires a microtube preheat temperature of about 900°F and sufficient residence time to achieve combustion that is stable and anchored in the tube without blowing through the tube unreacted. Thrust class is expected to be in the 10 m N range based on flow rate and estimated specific impulse. Power requirements are generally below 25 W to heat the tube. Steady state combustion testing is typically conducted for 3 minutes and shows little degradation of the hardware over multiple test cycles indicating that there is little catalyst degradation over time and little catalyst deactivation due to the phosphate stabilizer in the hydrogen peroxide.

Monopropellant↗

NASA NTRS2020

Extending Science from Lunar Laser Ranging

The Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) experiment has accumulated 50 years of range data of improving accuracy from ground stations to the laser retroreflector arrays (LRAs) on the lunar surface. The upcoming decade offers several opportunities to break new ground in data precision through the deployment of the next generation of single corner-cube lunar retroreflectors and active laser transponders. This is likely to expand the LLR station network. Lunar dynamical models and analysis tools have the potential to improve and fully exploit the long temporal baseline and precision allowed by millimetric LLR data. Some of the model limitations are outlined for future efforts. Differential observation techniques will help mitigate some of the primary limiting factors and reach unprecedented accuracy. Such observations and techniques may enable the detection of several subtle signatures required to understand the dynamics of the Earth- Moon system and the deep lunar interior. LLR model improvements would impact multi- disciplinary fields that include lunar and planetary science, Earth science, fundamental physics, celestial mechanics and ephemerides.

Vishnu Viswanathan↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Developing Technologies for Biological Experiments in Deep Space

NASA Ames Research Center is the leader in developing autonomous nanosatellites or CubeSats to address strategic knowledge gaps about the effects of space travel on biological organisms, including GeneSat, PharmaSat, and EcAMSat. Now that NASA has set its sights on human exploration in deep space, such missions require significant technological and biomedical countermeasures to protect astronauts from chronic radiation exposure. CubeSats can inform these countermeasures by querying relevant space environments with model organisms and/or biosensors. BioSentinel will be the first interplanetary CubeSat to study the biological response to space radiation outside low Earth orbit in almost 50 years. BioSentinel is an autonomous platform able to support biology and to investigate the effects of space radiation on a model organism in interplanetary deep space. It will fly onboard Artemis-1, from which it will be deployed on a lunar fly-by trajectory and into a heliocentric orbit. BioSentinel, a 6U CubeSat (1U = 10-cm cube), will measure the DNA damage response to ambient space radiation in a model organism, which will be compared to information provided by an onboard radiation spectrometer and to data obtained on the ISS and on Earth. Even though the primary objective of the mission is to develop an autonomous spacecraft capable of conducting biological experiments in deep space, the 4U BioSensor science payload contained within the free-flyer is an adaptable instrument that can perform bio measurements with different microorganisms and in multiple space environments, including the ISS, lunar gateway, and on the surface of the Moon. Thus, nanosatellites like BioSentinel can be used to study the effects of both reduced gravity and space radiation and can house different organisms to answer specific science questions. In addition to their flexibility, nanosatellites also provide a low-cost alternative to more complex and larger missions, and require minimal crew support, if any

biosenses↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Developing Technologies for Biological Experiments in Deep Space

biosenses↗

NASA NTRS2021

BUMPER: A Tool for Analyzing Spacecraft Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris Risk

“Bumper” is a computer program for analyzing spacecraft micrometeoroid and orbital debris (MMOD) risk. Bumper was developed in the late-1980s and has been continuously maintained and used since. The user base has grown from a few government entities now include numerous commercial entities as well. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Johnson Space Center (JSC) Hypervelocity Impact Technology (HVIT) group is responsible for all aspects of the Bumper software. Bumper has been used to characterize MMOD risk on many spacecraft. All of the International Space Station (ISS) modules, visiting vehicles and numerous external components and systems have been analyzed. Bumper was used to analyze the Space Shuttle, Orion, and many space probes, telescopes and satellites. Bumper is also being used to analyze future spacecraft such as the Deep Space Gateway (DSG) and Mars Sample Return (MSR) missions. The Bumper Configuration Control Board (CCB) ensures that all changes to the code are approved, reviewed, and documented. The current Bumper version – “Bumper 3” – is a Fortran executable that utilizes a 64-bit architecture. Bumper has numerous features that make it a powerful tool for analyzing spacecraft MMOD risk. Bumper uses the latest orbital debris and meteoroidenvironment models. Bumper also has a large library of ballistic limit “damage” equations available that can be used for a wide variety of MMOD shielding configurations. Bumper can also handle large spacecraft finite elementmodels (FEMs) and conducts checks of the model. This paper introduces Bumper and the MMOD risk analysis process using a simplified cube-shaped spacecraft model

hypervelocity↗

NASA NTRS2021

CubeSat Technology Past and Present: Current State-Of-The-Art Survey

A cube satellite (CubeSat) is an evolving and emerging technology that gives a novice or advanced researcher relatively affordable access to space research experiments and applications. The initial CubeSat standard was created in 1999 by California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo and Stanford University’s Space Systems Development Lab to facilitate direct access to space for university students. This initial CubeSat standard has now been adopted by hundreds of organizations worldwide and includes not only universities, educational institutions, but private firms and government organizations. Dozens of CubeSats have been launched since 2003 and have come from more than 29 states in the United States. The CubeSat standard facilitates frequent and affordable access to space with launch opportunities available on most launch vehicles. CubeSats are a class of research spacecraft called nanosatellites and are built to standard CubeSat Units or U dimensions of 10 by 10 by 10 cm and are formally classified as 1U, 2U, 3U, or 6U in size. Most CubeSats are deployed from a Poly-Picosatellite Orbital Deployer called a P-POD. Partnerships among NASA, U.S. industry, and educational institutions are being formed to build upon existing successful CubeSat initiatives with a goal to expand and include launching 50 small satellites from 50 states within the next several years. An extensive and detailed literature review that includes over 830 citations has been conducted to provide a comprehensive resource on both NASA and non-NASA CubeSat experiments and applications that can serve as a guide for background information on CubeSats as well as a valuable resource of lessons learned from CubeSats that have been launched in the past. CubeSats are currently being launched from all over the world on different launch vehicle platforms. Some organizations providing launch opportunities are California Polytechnic State University (http://www.cubesat.org/contactus), ISISPACE Group (https://www.isispace.nl/), Nanoracks (http://nanoracks.com/), Spaceflight Industries, Inc. (http://spaceflight.com/), TriSept Corporation (https://trisept.com/), and Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems, Inc. (https://www.tyvak.com/).

Cubesat↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

BioSentinel - ISS mission

BioSentinel will be the first interplanetary CubeSat to study the biological response to space radiation outside low Earth orbit in almost 50 years. BioSentinel is an autonomous platform able to support biology and to investigate the effects of space radiation on a model organism in interplanetary deep space. It will fly onboard Artemis-1, from which it will be deployed on a lunar fly-by trajectory and into a heliocentric orbit. BioSentinel, a 6U CubeSat (1U = 10-cm cube), will measure the DNA damage response to ambient space radiation in a model organism, which will be compared to information provided by an onboard radiation spectrometer and to data obtained on the ISS and on Earth. Even though the primary objective of the mission is to develop an autonomous spacecraft capable of conducting biological experiments in deep space, the 4U BioSensor science payload contained within the free-flyer is an adaptable instrument that can perform bio measurements with different microorganisms and in multiple space environments, including the ISS. Thus, nanosatellites like BioSentinel can be used to study the effects of both reduced gravity and space radiation and can house different organisms to answer specific science questions. In addition to their flexibility, nanosatellites also provide a low-cost alternative to more complex and larger missions, and require minimal crew support, if any

space biosensors↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Lunar BioSensor: An Autonomous Instrument to Study the Effects of the Lunar Environment on Biological Organisms

One of the major challenges to long-duration space travel and habitation in deep space is an in-depth understanding of the biological effects of space radiation, often convoluted by the impact of reduced gravity. Nonetheless, due to the near impossibility of simulating prolonged exposure to these combined effects in terrestrial facilities, actual missions are needed to characterize the radiobiological hazards of this environment. NASA Ames has been the leader in developing autonomous bio nanosatellites to address strategic knowledge gaps about the effects of space travel on biological organisms, including GeneSat, PharmaSat, EcAMSat, and BioSentinel. BioSentinel will be the first interplanetary bio nanosatellite or CubeSat to study the biological response to space radiation outside Low Earth Orbit (LEO). BioSentinel is an autonomous platform able to support biology and to investigate the effects of space radiation on a model organism in interplanetary deep space. It will fly onboard NASA’s Artemis-1, from which it will be deployed on a lunar fly-by trajectory and into a heliocentric orbit. The BioSentinel nanosatellite, a 6U deep space CubeSat (1U = 10-cm cube), will measure the DNA damage and response to ambient space radiation in a model biological organism, the budding yeast S. cerevisiae, which will be compared to information provided by an onboard physical radiation sensor and to data obtained in LEO (on the ISS) and on Earth. Even though the primary objective of the mission is to develop an autonomous spacecraft capable of conducting biological experiments in deep space, the 4U BioSensor science payload contained within the 6U free-flyer is an adaptable instrument platform that can perform biological measurements with different microorganisms and in multiple space environments, including the ISS, lunar gateway, and on the surface of the Moon. The proposed 4U instrument will leverage the payload design of the 6U free-flyer, utilizing the lunar lander or vehicle for power and data relay. Thus, nanosatellites like BioSentinel (and Lunar BioSensor) can be used to study the effects of both reduced gravity and space radiation and can house different bio organisms to answer specific science questions. In addition to their flexibility, nanosatellites also provide a low-cost alternative to more complex and larger missions, and require minimal crew support, if any.

space biosensors↗

NASA NTRS2021

A Summary of Normal Incidence Tube Tests of NASA'S Bio-inspired Broadband Acoustic Absorber

Motivated by the need to reduce noise pollution from aircraft engines, NASA has continued to design, manufacture and test recently patented structures that mimic the geometry and the broadband and low frequency acoustic absorption of assemblies of natural reeds. This report documents a screening test, which is a precursor to more controlled modelling experiments. The purpose of this experiment was to identify variables and prototype design features that might play a dominant role in the acoustic performance of these structures. To date, twenty-four prototypes, each with an overall shape of a cube (nominally 50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm), were designed and additively manufactured from thermoplastics using a Fused Filament Fabrication technique. The prototypes were tested in the NASA Glenn and Langley Normal Incidence Tubes to experimentally determine the acoustic absorption as a function of frequency from 400 Hz to 3000 Hz. Results indicate that a variety of structures exhibit substantial acoustic absorption in that frequency range, with an average absorption coefficient greater than 0.6, especially in the frequency range of 400 Hz to 1000 Hz. Six basic prototype designs were chosen to inform future modeling research. Results of these experiments can be used to evaluate existing physics-based models of the interaction of sound waves with these structures or to develop new models. Validated physics-based models of these structures can help engineers optimize the designs for different commercial noise control applications.

Acoustics↗

NASA NTRS2002

Overview of SIM external calibration

Like all astrometric instruments, the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) suffers from field-dependent errors requiring calibration. Diffraction effects in the delay line, polarization rotations on comer cubes, and beam walk across imperfect optics, all contribute to field-distortion that is significantly larger than is acceptable. The bulk of the systematic error is linear across the field - that is, it results in a magnification error. We show that the linear terms are inconsequential to the performance of SIM because they are inseparable from baseline length and orientation errors. One approach to calibrating the higher-order terms is to perform external' calibration; that is, SIM periodically makes differential measurements of a field of bright stars whose positions are not precisely known. We describe the requirements and constraints on the external calibration process and lay the groundwork for a specific procedure detailed in accompanying papers.

Space↗

NASA NTRS1994

Analysis of AOTF Hyperspectral Imagery

This paper reports results from an analysis of polarimetric hyperspectral imagery collected using a prototype acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) instrument in an outdoor environment. Spectra, derivative spectra, and polarization spectra in the image cube form were studied. The issue concerns spectral and polarization signatures of vegetation, contributions due to aerosol, and man-made object detection. The result illustrates potentials of the technology for a variety of remote sensing applications.

acousto-optic↗

NASA NTRS2004

Model validation of SIM external metrology at the sub-nanometer level

In order to achieve micro-arcsecond astrometry, SIM must make measurements of various optical path lengths at the picometer level. In this regime of precision, nearly every simplifying assumption in optics must be reexamined as a potential source of systematic error. SIM makes extensive use of physics-based models to predict the form and level of systematic errors affecting instrument performance. Since many of the modeling areas represent new frontiers in optical modeling, the validation of these physical models is a significant challenge that SIM must meet. In the case of the external metrology truss, the model must account for the imperfections in the corner cubes as well as the distance measuring interferometers ("beam launchers"). This model is being validated using the Kite testbed, a 2-D metrology truss with picometer-level accuracy in displacement measurements. We present the model and the results of the model validation tests on the Kite testbed.

Kuan, Gary M.↗

NASA NTRS2019

Navigating MarCO, the first interplanetary CubeSats

The NASA’s Mars Cube One (MarCO) probes are twin 6U CubeSats that were launched into space on May 5, 2018. The MarCOs shared a launch vehicle with NASA’s InSight mission, separating from the Atlas V Centaur upper stage after InSight. The MarCOs were injected into an Earth-Mars transfer trajectory and were independently navigated to the proximity of Mars. On 26 November, 2018 the MarCO probes flew by Mars as the InSight lander descended to the surface, providing real-time relay of InSight UHF data back to the Earth. This paper describes the approaches used to design the MarCOs’ trajectories and to navigate them to Mars, presenting the challenges of navigating and operating CubeSats in deep space, and the technological firsts achieved by the MarCO mission.

Young, Brian↗

NASA NTRS2019

Orbiters, CubeSats, and radio telescopes, oh my; entry, descent, and landing communications for the 2018 InSight Mars lander mission

The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy, and Heat Transport (InSight) Mars lander mission was launched on May 5th, 2018 and its November 26, 2018 entry, descent, and landing sequence was observed by no less than five separate assets. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) in orbit about Mars, the two Mars Cube One (MarCO) probes flying by, and two radio telescopes back on Earth were all used for this critical event communication coverage. These many paths of communication were enabled via the InSight launch/arrival strategy design, MRO orbital phasing selection, and MarCO trajectory design

Wagner, Sean↗

NASA NTRS2016

MarCO: Interplanetary Mission Development on a CubeSat Scale

Shortly after JPL’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) mission launches, separates, and commences its cruise phase, two CubeSats will deploy from the launch vehicle’s upper stage and begin independent flight to Mars (Fig. 1). During InSight’s entry, descent, and landing (EDL) sequence, these twin Mars Cube One (MarCO) spacecraft will fly 3,500 km above the Martian surface, recording and relaying InSight UHF radio data to the Deep Space Network (DSN) on Earth1. MarCO is a twin CubeSat mission developed by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to accompany the InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) Mars mission lander. MarCO's primary mission objective is to launch with InSight and independently fly to Mars to serve as a communications relay during InSight's entry, descent, and landing (EDL) phase. MarCO represents a new type of deep space mission: CubeSats at Mars. Building on the development of JPL's first interplanetary CubeSat project, the Interplanetary Nano-Spacecraft Pathfinder in Relevant Environment (INSPIRE), MarCO further refined the approach to hardware, software, and ground architecture development to solve the challenges of quickly building low-budget spacecraft to fly to Mars. The greatest constraint, beyond others typical of CubeSat missions, was time. The duration between MarCO's conception to completion of spacecraft assembly was less than two years - an unprecedented schedule for any planetary mission to date. Through necessity, MarCO has built on previous experience, procedures, systems, and development methodologies, defining a new niche for supporting larger primary missions. The MarCO spacecraft are poised to write a new chapter in deep space exploration. Originally slated to launch and reach Mars in 2016, the InSight mission schedule subsequently slipped to 2018. During the original landing of InSight, Earth would not be in view, and no orbiter around Mars would have been in position to both receive UHF EDL data and simultaneously relay it back to Earth. It was from this obstacle that MarCO was conceived. Regardless of any changes to InSight’s 2018 EDL configuration geometry, MarCO is still expected to fly and serve in the same capacity as originally designed: the first CubeSat mission to Mars. CubeSats have historically been firmly in the domain of universities and small companies. As first conceived, they served as a platform upon which to teach all aspects of the space mission lifecycle. JPL took on this mission type with Interplanetary Nano-Spacecraft Pathfinder in Relevant Environment2 (INSPIRE), moving the concept into a new domain: deep space. Building from the INSPIRE platform and lessons learned, MarCO addressed new challenges in the domain of planetary missions: independent interplanetary flight and navigation, integration with a large-scale mission, long-distance and long-delay communication, short development time, and a small development team. Of these, the greatest constraint was schedule: only 18 months passed from conception of mission concept until delivery of fully assembled and tested flight hardware. Careful selection of mission team, along with extensive use of off-the-shelf equipment, and streamlining automated processes, was essential. This achievement represents the next step in the evolution of CubeSats beyond low-Earth orbit.

Werne, Thomas↗

NASA NTRS2017

Deep-Space Navigation Using Optical Communications Systems

Optical communication links using lasers can potentially deliver data rates much higher than those possible using radio frequencies. If optical communications equipment is going to be carried by future deep-space missions, this equipment, with some adaptations, could also be used to perform tracking for trajectory determination. A number of experiments have been performed in Earth orbit and in lunar orbit using optical data links, while other missions have demonstrated optical links over interplanetary distances. Laser ranging using corner cube retroreflectors is a well-established technique that has been used for orbit determination of Earth orbiting spacecraft, for geodesy, and for lunar research, achieving centimeter-level precisions, but it is not a practical method for deep-space distances. There are two main optical tracking types that are being considered for deep-space navigation. The first is optical astrometry of spacecraft: a telescope on the ground images the laser beam coming from a spacecraft against the star background, determining its plane-of-sky position as seen from the observatory. This type will greatly benefit from the release of the high-accuracy star catalog produced by ESA’s Gaia mission, allowing for the generation of plane-of-sky measurements with an accuracy similar to that obtained today using VLBI tracking techniques. The second is optical ranging using active optical systems at both ends of the link, requiring a more careful design of the spacecraft optical communications system. One of the advantages of using optical frequencies is that they are not affected by charged particles in the signal path the way that radio frequencies are, eliminating solar plasma and ionospheric effects from the light-time calculation and the corresponding noise. On the other hand, clouds would preclude any type of optical communication, and daytime light scattering precludes astrometric measurements. This paper presents our analysis so far of the performance that could be achieved using optical data types in a number of deep-space scenarios. One of the questions that we are trying to answer is whether spacecraft equipped with optical communications terminals would also need to carry radio-frequency equipment for navigational purposes. We also want to understand how accurately we will be able to navigate spacecraft in different mission types and phases, and what would be the constraints, advantages, and disadvantages of using optical communications systems for deep-space navigation.

Karimi, Reza↗