SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “data needs”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

SourceResearch connectionFrom yearThrough year

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 721 records · Page 40

All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

NASA NTRS2001

Earth Science System of the Future: Observing, Processing, and Delivering Data Products Directly to Users

Advancement of our predictive capabilities will require new scientific knowledge, improvement of our modeling capabilities, and new observation strategies to generate the complex data sets needed by coupled modeling networks. New observation strategies must support remote sensing from a variety of vantage points and will include "sensorwebs" of small satellites in low Earth orbit, large aperture sensors in Geostationary orbits, and sentinel satellites at L1 and L2 to provide day/night views of the entire globe. Onboard data processing and high speed computing and communications will enable near real-time tailoring and delivery of information products (i.e., predictions) directly to users.

Crisp, David↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Examining the Trends in Financial Support Given to Science Teams for Data Analysis in Mission Proposals

Introduction: The goal of this summer internship research project was to analyze trends in financial support proposed for the science teams of planetary missions. The analysis focuses on the funding for Co-Investigators (Co-Is) to conduct research and/or data analysis needed to achieve the science objectives of the mission. The operational portion of the missions after launch (i.e., Phase E, including cruise and prime operations at the final destination) were examined since that is when the bulk of research is funded and conducted. The objectives of the project were to determine the average level of support for Co-Investigators, identify variation between mission competitions and over time, and determine the relationship between mission type and the amount of support requested. Methodology: This project was conducted using data from 90 proposals submitted to six mission competitions in the Discovery and New Frontiers programs. The level of support for Co-Is was determined by examining Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) 4 (Science Analysis) for Phase E, which was further subdivided into cruise and prime operations. This data represents a proxy rather than the actual funding Co-Is receive to perform research and data analysis because not every dollar in WBS 4 is spent on this activity. Therefore, the proxy obtained in this research represents an overestimate of the funds allocated to Co-Is for research and data analysis. Findings: Analysis shows that on average a Co-I receives approximately four full years of support spread across the entirety of Phase E for science analysis. The variation among proposed missions is less than expected given the variety of factors that are expected to drive this metric (length of mission, mission type, etc.). Additionally, the level of requested support for Co-Is has been remarkably consistent across every variable considered (by competition, over time, by mission type) over the six competitions and nearly 20 years spanned by this project. This remains true for cruise, primary operations, and all of Phase E. Conclusions: A remarkable amount of science is accomplished by the science teams of planetary missions. However, a surprisingly small amount of funding is requested to support the science analysis driving this productivity, both in terms of absolute magnitude of funding and as a portion of total mission cost. This suggests improvements are needed to refine the estimates of Co-I support and/or that Co-Is rely on other funding sources to conduct their research. Better estimates can be determined by engaging directly with Co-Is and NASA centers to obtain data as well as finding other data sources. Additionally, NASA could consider mandating improved reporting of requested funding levels in mission competitions.

E Murray↗

NASA NTRS2003

Infrared Thermography Flight Experimentation

Analysis was done on IR data collected by DFRC on May 8, 2002. This includes the generation of a movie to initially examine the IR flight data. The production of the movie was challenged by the volume of data that needed to be processed, namely 40,500 images with each image (256 x 252) containing over 264 million points (pixel depth 4096). It was also observed during the initial analysis that the RTD surface coating has a different emissivity than the surroundings. This fact added unexpected complexity in obtaining a correlation between RTD data and IR data. A scheme was devised to generate IR data near the RTD location which is not affected by the surface coating This scheme is valid as long as the surface temperature as measured does not change too much over a few pixel distances from the RTD location. After obtaining IR data near the RTD location, it is possible to make a direct comparison with the temperature as measured during the flight after adjusting for the camera s auto scaling. The IR data seems to correlate well to the flight temperature data at three of the four RID locations. The maximum count intensity occurs closely to the maximum temperature as measured during flight. At one location (RTD #3), there is poor correlation and this must be investigated before any further progress is possible. However, with successful comparisons at three locations, it seems there is great potential to be able to find a calibration curve for the data. Moreover, as such it will be possible to measure temperature directly from the IR data in the near future.

Blanchard, Robert C.↗

NASA NTRS2022

TechEdSat-13: The First Flight of a Neuromorphic Processor

Neuromorphic processors, inspired by the wiring of the brain, permit certain classes of Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML) algorithms to run far more efficiently. Ultimately, such systems will make the small- and nano-satellite platforms even more useful in terms of greatly improved power, communication and internal data management. In addition, on-board processing of images and data will help to not only rapidly interpret the information, but also reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted to ground stations. This initial flight experiment uses the Intel/Loihi processor combined with a custom interface board and three communication channels to run the AI/ML scripts. These will vary with increasing length and complexity during the course of the mission. The algorithms will use the (at first) limited sensor data to ‘learn’ - with comparisons to similar architecture in comparable ground experiments. Some of the applications for successor flights in the TES-n flight series include Cognitive Communications, whereby the overall communication system is optimized per overflight – by optimizing timing and data transmission functions. Lastly, the performance of the Loihi 14nm process technology will be monitored for performance in the LEO radiation environment, thus looking for induced hardware and software errors. This information will help guide future radiation protection techniques to extend the lifetime and overall utility. The TES-13 is a 3U nanosat successfully launched by the Virgin Orbit Launcher-1 on January 13, 2022, and will presage more flights and AI/ML applications to come.

TechEdSat↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

TechEdSat-13: The First Flight of an AI/ML Neuromorphic Processor

Neuromorphic processors, inspired by the wiring of the brain, permit certain classes of Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML) algorithms to run far more efficiently. Ultimately, such systems will make the small- and nano-satellite platforms even more useful in terms of greatly improved power, communication and internal data management. In addition, on-board processing of images and data will help to not only rapidly interpret the information, but also reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted to ground stations. This initial flight experiment uses the Intel/ Loihi processor combined with a custom interface board and three communication channels to run the AI/ML scripts. These will vary with increasing length and complexity during the course of the mission. The algorithms will use the (at first) limited sensor data to ‘learn’ - with comparisons to similar architecture in comparable ground experiments. Some of the applications for successor flights in the TES-n flight series include Cognitive Communications, whereby the overall communication system is optimized per overflight – by optimizing timing and data transmission functions. Lastly, the performance of the Loihi 14nm process technology will be monitored for performance in the LEO radiation environment, thus looking for induced hardware and software errors. This information will help guide future radiation protection techniques to extend the lifetime and overall utility. The TES-13 is a 3U nanosat successfully launched by the Virgin Orbit Launcher-1 on January 13, 2022, and will presage more flights and AI/ML applications to come.

TechEdSat↗

NASA NTRS1977

Thermochemical characterization of polymers for improved fire safety

Apparatus has been constructed for studying the thermal decomposition of polymers as a function of temperature. Such data is needed to evaluate the toxic threat presented by polymeric materials under fire conditions such as the smoldering fire of the type that occurs in closed areas such as coat closets in which anaerobic decomposition of polymers occurs. The apparatus allows the products of thermal decomposition to be collected and analyzed by infrared spectrometry and mass spectrometry. Data obtained from dog hair, an aromatic polyamide, polyphenylene sulfide, and polybenzimidazole are presented. It was found that significant amounts of toxic gas were evolved from dog hair at temperatures as low as 250 C, while temperatures in excess of 500 C were necessary in order for the evolution of toxic gas from the aromatic polymers to become significant.

Lerner, N. R.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Synthetic Data for Testing TRMM Radar Algorithms

Test data are required to test algorithms for the TRMM Precipitation Radar. These data are needed to test the design of the computer codes under development for the operational phase of the mission, and also to test and evaluate alternative or improved precipitation retrieval algorithms. Over a number of years we have developed and used a 3-dimensional radar model for simulating spaceborne precipitation radars. We have adapted this code to produce data files as close as possible to the TRMM file specifications. In this paper, we will describe the model as it is currently implemented, and show some samples of the synthetic data sets.

Jones, Jeffrey A.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Tangential, semisubmerged, and internal store carriage and separation

Accounts are presented of tangential, semisubmerged, and internal store carriage drag, as well as of the results to date of stores-separation investigations employing both computational and experimental methods. It is demonstrated that CFD can contribute to the data base needed for internal stores carriage design and trade studies. Attention is given to the case of an internally carried store separating from its bay at supersonic speeds, where various kinds of interference are encountered. A code is developed for the simulation of these unsteady flows through time-accurate computations; computation results are noted to closely reproduce experiment data.

Wilcox, Floyd J., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1995

Coral Pigments: Quantification Using HPLC and Detection by Remote Sensing

Widespread coral bleaching (loss of pigments of symbiotic dinoflagellates), and the corresponding decline in coral reef health worldwide, mandates the monitoring of coral pigmentation. Samples of the corals Porites compressa and P. lobata were collected from a healthy reef at Puako, Hawaii, and chlorophyll (chl) a, peridinin, and Beta-carotene (Beta-car) were quantified using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Detailed procedures are presented for the extraction of the coral pigments in 90% acetone, and the separation, identification, and quantification of the major zooxanthellar pigments using spectrophotometry and a modification of the HPLC system described by Mantoura and Llewellyn (1983). Beta-apo-8-carotenal was found to be inadequate as in internal standard, due to coelution with chl b and/or chl a allomer in the sample extracts. Improvements are suggested, which may result in better resolution of the major pigments and greater accuracy in quantification. Average concentrations of peridinin, chl a, and Beta-car in corals on the reef were 5.01, 8.59, and 0.29, micro-grams/cm(exp 2), respectively. Average concentrations of peridinin and Beta-car did not differ significantly between the two coral species sampled; however, the mean chl a concentration in P. compressa specimens (7.81 ,micro-grams/cm(exp 2) was significantly lower than that in P. lobata specimens (9.96 11g/cm2). Chl a concentrations determined spectrophotometrically were significantly higher than those generated through HPLC, suggesting that spectrophotometry overestimates chl a concentrations. The average ratio of chl a-to-peridinin concentrations was 1.90, with a large (53%) coefficient of variation and a significant difference between the two species sampled. Additional data are needed before conclusions can be drawn regarding average pigment concentrations in healthy corals and the consistency of the chl a/peridinin ratio. The HPLC pigment concentration values contribute to the limited database of pigment concentrations in healthy corals, from which quantitative definitions of 'healthy' vs. 'bleached' coral may emerge. They also serve as ground-truth, corresponding to fluorescence data collected from the reef at Puako using airborne remote sensing of laser induced fluorescence. Fluorescence spectra from several overflights using the NASA AOL (airborne oceanographic lidar) system show consistent chlorphyll fluorescence peaks around 685 nm, as well as consistence peaks in the 400-600 nm range which may emanate from granules in the coral tissue. These data, along with results from previous studies of coral fluorescence, suggest that remote sensing of laser-induced fluorescence may become a rapid and efficient means of monitoring coral pigmentation and coral reef bleaching.

Cottone, Mary C.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Comparative Study of 3-Dimensional Woven Joint Architectures for Composite Spacecraft Structures

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Exploration Systems Mission Directorate initiated an Advanced Composite Technology (ACT) Project through the Exploration Technology Development Program in order to support the polymer composite needs for future heavy lift launch architectures. As an example, the large composite structural applications on Ares V inspired the evaluation of advanced joining technologies, specifically 3D woven composite joints, which could be applied to traditionally manufactured barrel segments. Implementation of these 3D woven joint technologies may offer enhancements in damage tolerance without sacrificing weight. However, baseline mechanical performance data is needed to properly analyze the joint stresses and subsequently design/down-select a preform architecture. Six different configurations were designed and prepared for this study; each consisting of a different combination of warp/fill fiber volume ratio and preform interlocking method (z-fiber, fully interlocked, or hybrid). Tensile testing was performed for this study with the enhancement of a dual camera Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system which provides the capability to measure full-field strains and three dimensional displacements of objects under load. As expected, the ratio of warp/fill fiber has a direct influence on strength and modulus, with higher values measured in the direction of higher fiber volume bias. When comparing the z-fiber weave to a fully interlocked weave with comparable fiber bias, the z-fiber weave demonstrated the best performance in two different comparisons. We report the measured tensile strengths and moduli for test coupons from the 6 different weave configurations under study.

Jones, Justin S.↗

NASA NTRS1992

PCIPS 2.0: Powerful multiprofile image processing implemented on PCs

Over the years, the processing power of personal computers has steadily increased. Now, 386- and 486-based PC's are fast enough for many image processing applications, and inexpensive enough even for amateur astronomers. PCIPS is an image processing system based on these platforms that was designed to satisfy a broad range of data analysis needs, while requiring minimum hardware and providing maximum expandability. It will run (albeit at a slow pace) even on a 80286 with 640K memory, but will take full advantage of bigger memory and faster CPU's. Because the actual image processing is performed by external modules, the system can be easily upgraded by the user for all sorts of scientific data analysis. PCIPS supports large format lD and 2D images in any numeric type from 8-bit integer to 64-bit floating point. The images can be displayed, overlaid, printed and any part of the data examined via an intuitive graphical user interface that employs buttons, pop-up menus, and a mouse. PCIPS automatically converts images between different types and sizes to satisfy the requirements of various applications. PCIPS features an API that lets users develop custom applications in C or FORTRAN. While doing so, a programmer can concentrate on the actual data processing, because PCIPS assumes responsibility for accessing images and interacting with the user. This also ensures that all applications, even custom ones, have a consistent and user-friendly interface. The API is compatible with factory programming, a metaphor for constructing image processing procedures that will be implemented in future versions of the system. Several application packages were created under PCIPS. The basic package includes elementary arithmetics and statistics, geometric transformations and import/export in various formats (FITS, binary, ASCII, and GIF). The CCD processing package and the spectral analysis package were successfully used to reduce spectra from the Nordic Telescope at La Palma. A photometry package is also available, and other packages are being developed. A multitasking version of PCIPS that utilizes the factory programming concept is currently under development. This version will remain compatible (on the source code level) with existing application packages and custom applications.

Smirnov, O. M.↗

NASA NTRS1979

User-oriented end-to-end transport protocols for the real-time distribution of telemetry data from NASA spacecraft

A set of standard telemetry protocols for downlink data flow facilitating the end-to-end transport of instrument data from the spacecraft to the user in real time is proposed. The direct switching of data by autonomous message 'packets' that are assembled by the source instrument on the spacecraft is discussed. The data system consists thus of a format on a message rather than word basis, and such packet telemetry would include standardized protocol headers. Standards are being developed within the NASA End-to-End Data System (NEEDS) program for the source packet and transport frame protocols. The source packet protocol contains identification of both the sequence number of the packet as it is generated by the source and the total length of the packet, while the transport frame protocol includes a sequence count defining the serial number of the frame as it is generated by the spacecraft data system, and a field specifying any 'options' selected in the format of the frame itself.

Hooke, A. J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Results of the NASA Prediction Uncertainty Reduction Tech Challenge

In January 2021 the Advanced Air Vehicles Program approved a new Tech Challenge (TC) to be run out of the Commercial Supersonic Technology (CST) Project. The objective of the TC was to bring uncertainties in the empirical noise modeling for civilian supersonic aircraft into the same range as that of conventional aircraft. The TC goal statement was to “Produce data and demonstrate tools that reduce the uncertainty in predicting Landing & Takeoff Noise levels of supersonic-relevant designs by 5 EPNdB and are ready for use in studies to inform FAA rule-making.” To make the required improvements in noise prediction methods for supersonic aircraft, NASA decided to validate and use high-fidelity numerical simulations to acquire the needed noise data on supersonic propulsion configurations. High-fidelity component designs were developed, such as a two-stage propulsor behind a supersonic inlet designed by General Electric Aviation and variable area exhaust systems using input from recent contracts with GE and Rolls Royce. A noise database was generated as a function of geometric and flow parameters, providing corrections to the empirical noise models and added new input variables to describe the complexities created by the supersonic-specific design features. Statistically, the new models were able to predict the acoustic impact of supersonic-specific features, the reduction in uncertainty being reduced from the baseline 7.8 EPNdB at the beginning of the TC to 2.0 EPNdB at the end.

noise prediction↗

NASA NTRS1994

Data assimilation and model evaluation experiment datasets

The Institute for Naval Oceanography, in cooperation with Naval Research Laboratories and universities, executed the Data Assimilation and Model Evaluation Experiment (DAMEE) for the Gulf Stream region during fiscal years 1991-1993. Enormous effort has gone into the preparation of several high-quality and consistent datasets for model initialization and verification. This paper describes the preparation process, the temporal and spatial scopes, the contents, the structure, etc., of these datasets. The goal of DAMEE and the need of data for the four phases of experiment are briefly stated. The preparation of DAMEE datasets consisted of a series of processes: (1) collection of observational data; (2) analysis and interpretation; (3) interpolation using the Optimum Thermal Interpolation System package; (4) quality control and re-analysis; and (5) data archiving and software documentation. The data products from these processes included a time series of 3D fields of temperature and salinity, 2D fields of surface dynamic height and mixed-layer depth, analysis of the Gulf Stream and rings system, and bathythermograph profiles. To date, these are the most detailed and high-quality data for mesoscale ocean modeling, data assimilation, and forecasting research. Feedback from ocean modeling groups who tested this data was incorporated into its refinement. Suggestions for DAMEE data usages include (1) ocean modeling and data assimilation studies, (2) diagnosis and theoretical studies, and (3) comparisons with locally detailed observations.

Lai, Chung-Cheng A.↗

NASA NTRS2024

EdgeCortix SAKURA-I Machine-Learning, PCIe Accelerator SEE Heavy Ion Test Report

To enable autonomy in space, machine-learning and computer vision applications become invaluable for sensor processing. However, these algorithms are computationally complex and unfeasible for many embedded central processing units (CPUs) and usually require external coprocessors, such as graphics processing units (GPUs) or accelerators specific to the application, including application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). In power-constrained systems, GPUs tend to consume more power than is acceptable (>40W), so lower-power accelerators have shown promise to provide the performance needed under spacecraft constraints. For radiation engineers, developing methodologies that can properly test CPUs, GPUs, and accelerators, and enable comparisons between them remains a necessary complication to solve as the devices become more complex. The methodology in this test aims to be a start in developing a baseline single-event effect (SEE) test for client-device machine learning accelerators. This category of devices do not host their own operating system. This testing campaign is a continuation of a previous 200 MeV proton test performed in January 2024. This report covers two heavy ion tests of the SAKURA-I card: one in April 2024, and one in June 2024. Additional data was needed after the April test due to ion-range issues experienced at higher linear-energy transfers (LETs). These range issues are described in more detail in Section 8. This experiment characterizes SEEs and data error susceptibility of the EdgeCortix SAKURA-I machine-learning accelerator under heavy ions. The device was monitored for single event upsets (SEUs) and single event functional interrupts (SEFIs) at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 88-inch cyclotron. The SAKURA-I board accelerates machine-learning inference applications on a host computer through a PCIex16 connection. For the purposes of devising an end to end automated analysis workflow for this experiment, the YOLO-V5 and SSD300 objection-detection models, and the ResNet-50, EfficientNet, and MobileNetV2 image classification models were used as a representative suite of analytical machine-learning models.

Seth S Roffe↗

NASA NTRS1973

Atmospheric Aerosol and Thermal Structure in the Boundary Layer Over the Los Angeles Basin

A field study using a mobile lidar was recently conducted in the L. A. Basin, California, to (1) examine the relationship between the vertical aerosol and the thermal structure, and (2) map the vertical aerosol structure in the atmospheric boundary layer over the basin. These data are needed for use in the development of a mixing-depth submodel required for photochemical air Quality simulation models. Toward these ends, a series of lidar aerosol measurements in conjunction with balloon and aircraft temperature soundings were taken at a site in El Monte, and in a mobile mode along a 90-mile freeway loop between El Monte, Santa Monica, and Long Beach. The lidar data are presented in the form of time-height and distance-height cross sections. The results indicate that, although aerosol concentrations are frequently present above the base of the marine inversion, these are generally in stratified layers in contrast to the more uniform nature of the lower convective layer, permitting the mixing depth to be distinguished on this basis. The lidar-derived mixing depths are well correlated (within 100 m) with daytime temperature inversions. Other significant features shown by the lidar data include large Basin-wide mixing-depth variations, waves with amplitudes of 200-300 m and wavelengths of 1000-1500 m on the lower aerosol layer, and apparent aerosol "chimneys" with overrunning in the vicinity of convergence zones.

Johnson, Warren B.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Assessing the Relationships Between Sensorimotor Biomarkers and Post-Landing Functional Task Performance

Spaceflight drives adaptive changes in healthy individuals appropriate for sensorimotor function in a microgravity environment. These changes are maladaptive for return to earth's gravity. The inter-individual variability of sensorimotor decrements is striking, although poorly understood. The goal of this study is to identify a set of behavioral, neuroimaging and genetic measures that can be used to predict early post-flight performance on a set of sensorimotor tasks. Astronauts are recruited who previously participated in sensorimotor field tests and/or posturography soon after long-duration spaceflight. Behavioral tests include assessments of sensory dependency and adaptability. Visual dependency involves treadmill walking while viewing a moving virtual visual scene. Vestibular thresholds are measured while seated during lateral translations. Proprioception dependency is measured during one-legged stance on a horizontal air-bearing surface. Ground assessment of adaptability is performed (1) during treadmill walking with a virtual linear hallway and a moving walking surface, and (2) during multiple trials of navigating an obstacle course while wearing reversing prisms. The neuroimaging tests will characterize individual differences in regional brain volumes (using Structural MRI) and white matter microstructure (using Diffusion Tensor Imaging) to serve as potential predictors of adaptive capacity. The genetic tests will utilize saliva samples to examine variations in four genes chosen because of their ability to differentiate sensorimotor adaptation ability in a normative population, including Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), Dopamine Receptor D2 (DRD2), Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the α2-adrenergic receptor. Twenty-one ISS crewmembers have been tested to date, including 6 from this past year after testing resumed post-COVID. This cohort includes 9 first-time fliers, 4F, and mission durations lasting 182 ± 32 days, mean ± std. We are utilizing a combination of three post-flight functional task outcomes: tandem walk, recovery from fall and dynamic posturography. There is considerable variability among the post-flight performance outcomes for the 21 participants to date. Based on a partial sample using an ordinal scale survey, 80% indicated their ability to perform functional tasks were more impacted postflight relative to inflight with 50% indicating they needed to restrict movements for a longer period postflight relative to inflight. While there is a strong association within tests obtained at different R+0 timepoints, by R+24 hr performance on one post-flight test does not necessarily correlate with performance on other post-flight tests. There are apparent relationships between individual measures and specific post-flight outcome measures; however, additional data is needed to draw conclusions. Preliminary statistical analysis indicates combining biomarkers will increase predictive power and this will be explored with future analyses. Our preliminary findings underscore the importance of a comprehensive post-flight test battery including different types of tasks with varying sensory feedback. We expect that understanding the relationships between these sensorimotor biomarkers and post-flight functional task performance will improve both our understanding of the individual variability and our strategy to optimize sensorimotor countermeasures.

S J Wood↗

NASA NTRS1997

Satellite Sensed Skin Sea Surface Temperature

Quantitative predictions of spatial and temporal changes the global climate rely heavily on the use of computer models. Unfortunately, such models cannot provide the basis for climate prediction because key physical processes are inadequately treated. Consequently, fine tuning procedures are often used to optimize the fit between model output and observational data and the validation of climate models using observations is essential if model based predictions of climate change are to be treated with any degree of confidence. Satellite Sea Surface Temperature (SST) observations provide high spatial and temporal resolution data which is extremely well suited to the initialization, definition of boundary conditions and, validation of climate models. In the case of coupled ocean-atmosphere models, the SST (or more correctly the 'Skin' SST (SSST)) is a fundamental diagnostic variable to consider in the validation process. Daily global SST maps derived from satellite sensors also provide adequate data for the detection of global patterns of change which, unlike any other SST data set, repeatedly extend into the southern hemisphere extra-tropical regions. Such data are essential to the success of the spatial 'fingerprint' technique, which seeks to establish a north-south asymmetry where warming is suppressed in the high latitude Southern Ocean. Some estimates suggest that there is a greater than 80% chance of directly detecting significant change (97.5 % confidence level) after 10-12 years of consistent global observations of mean sea surface temperature. However, these latter statements should be qualified with the assumption that a negligible drift in the observing system exists and that biases between individual instruments required to derive a long term data set are small. Given that current estimates for the magnitude of global warming of 0.015 K yr(sup -1) - 0.025 K yr(sup -1), satellite SST data sets need to be both accurate and stable if such a warming trend is to be confidently detected. Some of these activities are focussed to develop and deploy instrumentation suitable for the collection of precise in situ measurements of the SSST which can be used to improve the accuracy of satellite measurements, while others develop techniques to generate improved global analyses of sea surface temperature using historical data.

Donlon, Craig↗