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DOE OSTI2023

Accelerating the Adoption of Energy Efficiency and Renewables in Warehouses and Distribution Centers

Commercial warehouses and storage facilities represent a large part of the commercial buildings in the United States, and their share increases every year. NREL is working with the U.S. Department of Energy to understand barriers, sector needs, and opportunities to enhance sustainability in the warehouse sector, driving ultra-high efficient, zero-energy design, while considering electrification in buildings and vehicles, grid-friendly operation, and decarbonization. After investigating literature about warehouse sustainability practices and high-performance warehouse case studies, several one-on-one interviews were carried out with warehouse managers and stakeholders. Data collected through literature and the interviews were captured to provide the current status of warehousing in the context of energy efficiency, renewables, carbon emissions, and overall sustainability. The results are intended to inform areas for new research and deployment activities to achieving zero energy and zero carbon goals.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2014

DOE Zero Energy Ready Home Case Study: One Sky Homes — Cottle Zero Net Energy Home, San Jose, CA

This builder took home the Grand Winner prize in the Custom Builder category in the 2014 Housing Innovation Awards for its high performance building science approach. The builder used insulated concrete form blocks to create the insulated crawlspace foundation for its first DOE Zero Energy Ready Home, the first net zero energy new home certified in the state of California.

2014 housing innovation awards↗

DOE OSTI2016

Efficient Solutions for New Homes Case Study: Savannah Gardens

The Savannah Housing Department is leading sustainable and affordable housing development in Georgia. It partnered with Southface Energy Institute, a member of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Partnership for Home Innovation Building America research team, to seek cost-effective solutions for increasing the energy efficiency of the Savannah Housing Department’s standard single-family home plans in the Savannah Gardens Community. Based on engineering, cost, and constructability analyses, the combined research team chose to pilot two technologies to evaluate efficiency and comfort impacts for homeowners: a heat-pump water heater in an encapsulated attic and an insulated exterior wall sheathing.

building america↗

DOE OSTI2020

A Modular Optimal Power Flow Method for Integrating New Technologies in Distribution Grids

This work proposes a modular concept to build optimal power flow (OPF) models for distribution networks containing various emerging technologies under diverse ownership structures, to efficiently deal with evolving technology capabilities and information sharing or privacy constraints. This concept will support any typical OPF application (e.g., optimal dispatch of a given asset without violating grid constraints) by coordinating between grid module and technology module without the need to recreate various modeling elements as technology capability changes due to innovation. Moreover, the modularity of the proposed concept enables achieving system level objectives without sharing detailed information on module level objectives and constraints among modules. To achieve this, the proposed work develops a gradient-descent algorithm which builds upon the literature on the state-of-the-art power flow approximation. The proposed concept is demonstrated with two case studies of i) controllable loads and ii) battery energy storage system (BESS) on an actual large-scale distribution grid.

Hanif, Sarmad↗

DOE OSTI2024

A Comprehensive Assessment of the Viability of Small Modular Reactors in Africa: A Nuclear Security and Nonproliferation Perspective

In response to escalating global energy demands driven by industrialization and the pressing need for decarbonization, this paper explores the potential of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as a sustainable energy solution in Africa. Focusing on nuclear security and non-proliferation concerns, the study assesses Africa's energy landscape, emphasizing the need for diverse and reliable power sources. While highlighting the scalability and cost-effectiveness of SMRs, the analysis acknowledges potential challenges associated with their introduction, particularly concerning nuclear security and non-proliferation. Given the recommendation to use High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU) in some SMRs, it is important to critically consider the security implications of transporting nuclear materials, the proximity of the public to the plant, and the time taken to respond to planned assaults. The possibility of using HALEU makes the nuclear material more prone to adversaries such as sabotage, theft, and terrorism. Utilizing PESTLE analysis, this research seeks to outline the detailed political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal readiness of Africa to embrace the first-of-a-kind technology (SMR) while fulfilling its mandate to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Examining regulatory frameworks, international cooperation, and safety protocols, the study underscores the importance of regional collaboration to prevent the misuse of nuclear technology for military and malicious intent. Drawing insights from successful case studies, the paper concludes by synthesizing key findings and proposing recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders. These recommendations encompass regulatory enhancement, capacity building, technology transfer, and diplomatic efforts to strengthen nuclear security, non-proliferation, and safeguards in Africa.

Prah, Christina↗

DOE OSTI2024

Multifaceted Challenges and Opportunities Associated with Small Modular Reactors in Africa: A Nonproliferation Perspective

In response to the increasing global energy demands driven by industrialization and the urgent need for decarbonization, this study explores the potential of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as a sustainable energy solution in Africa. With a focus on nonproliferation concerns, the paper assesses Africa's energy landscape, emphasizing the need for diverse and reliable power sources. While highlighting the scalability and cost-effectiveness of SMRs, the analysis acknowledges potential challenges associated with adhering to the Nonproliferation Treaty with their mass deployment in the African continent. Examining regulatory frameworks, international cooperation, and security protocols, the study also underscores the importance of regional collaboration to prevent the misuse of nuclear technology for military and malicious purposes. The economic and geopolitical implications of SMR deployment in Africa are also investigated, considering its contributions to energy security and economic growth. Drawing insights from successful case studies, the paper concludes by synthesizing key findings and proposing recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders. These recommendations encompass regulatory enhancement, capacity building, technology transfer, and diplomatic efforts to strengthen nuclear security, nonproliferation, and safeguards. The overarching aim is to advocate for a balanced approach that maximizes the benefits of SMRs while mitigating associated risks to ultimately contribute to the sustainable and secure development of nuclear energy in Africa.

Prah, Christina↗

DOE OSTI2020

Nonlinear dynamic analysis of solution multiplicity of buoyancy ventilation in a typical underground structure

Buoyancy ventilation is widely used in underground buildings, such as underground hydropower stations. Multiple solutions of buoyancy ventilation may exist in those underground structures. In this study, we developed a transient model comprising an ordinary differential equation system to describe buoyancy ventilation patterns in typical two-zone underground structures. Additionally, the accuracy of the model was validated. Nonlinear dynamical analysis was conducted to study multiple steady-state airflow. According to mathematical derivation, the configuration of one local heat source at the bottom corner introduces two stable solutions. The criterion to determine the stability and existence of solutions for more general scenarios was developed. Using this criterion, we obtained the multiple steady states of any two-zone underground buildings for different stack height ratios and the strength ratios of the heat sources. Furthermore, this criterion can be adopted for the design of buoyancy ventilation or natural smoke ventilation systems. Designers can change the height ratio of the stack or the heat ratio of two zones to induce the desired ventilation patterns. Finally, a case study was conducted with field measurements to demonstrate the use of the nonlinear dynamical analysis method to investigate the multiple steady states of buoyancy ventilation. Through the case study, we validated that the proposed criterion could produce the same result as the nonlinear dynamical analysis.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

Benefits of Dual Fuel Heat Pump Grid-responsive Control: A Model-based Control Optimization Approach Using Building and Equipment Co-simulation

Conventional dual fuel heat pumps lack the intelligent control mechanisms to efficiently manage the switch between heat pump and furnace, leading to sub-optimal energy usage and, in some cases, increased operating costs. To resolve this gap, this study applies optimized control on hybrid heat pumps. With a focus on equipment control strategies, we compare the performances of five spacing heating equipment, including a conventional heat pump (HP), a conventional furnace, a dual fuel heat pump (DFHP) with conventional control, a dual fuel heat pump with smart control, and a novel seamlessly fuel flexible heat pump (SFFHP). While DFHP runs on either gas or electricity at any given moment, SFFHP concurrently consumes gas and electricity by continuously optimizing the proportion of each. In this research, a co-simulation framework is developed by integrating a building envelope model with a physics-based heat pump simulation model to analyze the benefits of grid-responsive controls of DFHP and SFFHP. The model-based optimal controls adjust the operation of the heat pump and gas furnace based on utility price signals and marginal grid emission to minimize utility cost and CO 2 emissions for multiple climate zones, different utility tariffs, and marginal grid emission scenarios. Case studies in Chicago and Los Angeles demonstrate that SFFHP and DFHP, with model-based optimal control, can deliver significant reductions in peak demand, utility cost, and CO 2 emission. In Chicago, SFFHP and smart controlled DFHP yield up to 64.7% and 61.7% utility cost reduction and up to 15.7% and 8.5% CO 2 emission reduction compared to the gas furnace. In Los Angeles, SFFHP and smart controlled DFHP achieve up to 43.6% and 40.1% utility cost reduction and up to 13.8% and 14.1% CO2 emission reduction compared to conventional heat pumps. In conclusion, by leveraging the fuel flexibility nature of dual fuel heat pumps, the model-based control optimization approach makes dual fuel heat pump an attractive option for demand response programs.

Control↗

DOE OSTI2020

Nanoscale Perspectives of Metal Degradation via In Situ Atom Probe Tomography

Abstract We report a unique in situ instrument development effort dedicated to studying gas/solid interactions relevant to heterogeneous catalysis and early stages of oxidation of materials via atom probe tomography and microscopy (APM). An in situ reactor cell, similar in concept to other reports, has been developed to expose nanoscale volumes of material to reactive gas environments, in which temperature, pressure, and gas chemistry are well controlled. We demonstrate that the combination of this reactor cell with APM techniques can aid in building a better mechanistic understanding of resultant composition and surface and subsurface structure changes accompanying gas/surface reactions in metal and metal alloy systems through a series of case studies: O 2 /Rh, O 2 /Co, and O 2 /Zircaloy-4. In addition, the basis of a novel operando mode of analysis within an atom probe instrument is also reported. The work presented here supports the implementation of APM techniques dedicated to atomic to near-atomically resolved gas/surface interaction studies of materials broadly relevant to heterogeneous catalysis and oxidation.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

The impact of energy-efficiency upgrades and other distributed energy resources on a residential neighborhood-scale electrification retrofit

We report ambitious targets for carbon emissions reductions are highlighting new challenges for electrification strategies, leading to an increased focus on building load flexibility and energy management to complement the variability inherent in renewable energy generation. Over the next decade millions of existing homes could undergo electrification retrofits, and there is an urgent need to understand the potential impacts of electrifying major residential loads such as water and space heating on community load characteristics, resident energy bills, and the utility's distribution system. Behind-the-meter distributed energy resources (DERs), including efficiency measures, photovoltaics (PV), battery storage, managed electric vehicle (EV) charging, and controls such as home energy management systems (HEMS), can significantly alter a neighborhood's load profile and provide benefits to both the residents and the grid. We present a novel approach to characterizing the impact of a hypothetical neighborhood-scale residential retrofit program on individual homes' energy use profiles, associated utility bills, and the local distribution system. We modeled a mixed-fuel community of 30 single-family homes in Denver, Colorado, and compared the effects of retrofit scenarios ranging from conventional energy-efficiency upgrades to full electrification with and without more advanced DER technologies. We analyzed which packages of DERs most reliably enable demand flexibility in response to a time-of-use (TOU) rate for this and similar neighborhoods. Our buildings-to-grid co-simulation framework includes a generic secondary distribution feeder model to capture voltage profiles, transformer loading, and other grid impacts in each case. We also calculated the carbon emissions associated with energy use in the community. The methodology developed here can be broadly applied to community-scale beneficial electrification studies in other regions, climates, utility infrastructures, and building typologies to make specific, targeted recommendations based on quantified projections of energy demand in any given community. Our findings indicate that residential electrification can be achieved without negatively impacting the monthly utility bill, and that a combination of conventional energy-efficiency measures, PV, battery, controls, and managed EV charging to maximize a community's demand flexibility is a promising strategy. Adding DERs (especially PV) as part of efficient electrification produces much bigger savings than efficient electrification without DERs. A key barrier is that upgrades require upfront costs, and modest utility bill savings result in long payback periods.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Numerical Simulations of Geologic Storage Reservoir Management to Support Risk Mitigation Evaluation

This report provides a detailed description of a set of numerical simulations that represent reservoir behavior over time in response to different operational decision scenarios for detection of potential leakage and reduction or avoidance of leakage impact at a hypothetical geological carbon storage (GCS) site. These simulations serve as the basis for a series of GCS leakage risk forecasts that are to be developed using the National Risk Assessment Partnership’s Open-Source Integrated Assessment Model (NRAP-Open-IAM), and a demonstration of a simple decision support workflow for evaluation of mitigation strategies based on results of those system model forecasts. This risk assessment and decision support study is forthcoming. Four injection scenarios were considered: a constant rate carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) injection case (base case), a case with CO 2 injection rate adjustment, a case with early termination of injection operations, and a case with brine extraction. CO 2 injection operations were controlled to ensure that the pressure transient remains below the defined manageable reservoir fracture pressure, with consideration shown to hypothetical locations within the modeled spatial domain where the overburden was weaker and lower transient pressure increases were allowable. Additionally, a brine extraction alternative was considered as a reservoir management and risk mitigation option to reduce reservoir pressure, steer the plume away from any hypothetical geohazard such as fault as needed, and enhance storage capacity. Such operational actions contribute to risk management overtime. This study explores the potential utility of reservoir management for risk reduction at GCS sites. This study shows that the injection design may modify the time to CO 2 breakthrough at a legacy well; in particular, these results show that brine extraction can add value for mitigating risk both by delaying leakage and reducing pressure build-up. For the scenario considered, both pressure plots and pressure distributions demonstrate that pressure build-up was decreased by 3% with brine extraction. Additionally, extraction of brine afforded enhancement of CO 2 storage capacity by 5% compared to the base case. These findings suggest that brine extraction has substantial potential to steer the risk-related reservoir effects away from known geohazards (e.g., faults and legacy wells) by conducting pressure transient effects and CO 2 plume movement toward the production well. Injection rate adjustment scenarios considered in this study show potential value for managing both reservoir pressure transients and CO 2 plume behavior. Operational actions for reducing injection and/or early termination of injection (as compared to the base case), however, require careful design; tailoring both the extent and timing of injection rate adjustment over the injection and post-injection operational period must be thoroughly planned to balance maximizing storage and minimizing subsurface environmental risk. The study also gives preliminary consideration to the effectiveness that monitoring strategy may play in providing useful information to inform reservoir management decisions for risk reduction. Two types of monitoring were considered: 1) pressure build-up or pressure transient; and 2) potential leakage detection from a CO 2 mass or plume. Four hypothetical legacy wells, two plugged and two abandoned, were placed in the model domain. Monitoring along these wells was measured over time in individual stacked reservoir formations and shale formations to support risk mitigation decisions, especially operational decisions that assisted in risk reduction. These simulations will serve as the basis for a series of GCS leakage risk forecasts that are to be developed using NRAP’s Open-IAM, and demonstration of a simple decision support workflow for comparative assessment of mitigation alternatives based on results of those system model forecasts. This risk assessment and decision support study is forthcoming.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Model Predictive Control for a Grid-interactive Efficient Thermal Storage-integrated Heat Pump System

Building heating and cooling systems can be used to overcome the mismatch between the intermittent supply of renewable power and the fluctuating demand for electricity. A novel underground thermal energy storage integrated with a dual-source heat pump has been proposed to mitigate the mismatch while meeting the thermal demand of buildings efficiently. Conventional thermostat control with heuristic rules cannot provide intelligent decisions to maximize the thermal efficiency and flexibility of the proposed system. Advanced control strategies like model predictive control (MPC) have provided a new paradigm for grid-interactive efficient building operation with the advancement of computation and sensing. This study developed an MPC for the proposed system to provide grid service for Demand Side Management and minimize the operating cost of building owners. A control-oriented dynamic model of the proposed system has been developed. Given an objective function and proper constraints, an optimization problem is formulated to determine the optimal control strategy of the system. Dynamic Programming is adopted to solve the optimization problem. A rule-based control (RBC) is also developed to achieve similar goals. Short-term simulations are conducted to compare the system performance resulting from the two controls. The simulation results indicate that the MPC performs more intelligently than the RBC in charging thermal energy storage and selecting heat pump sources by taking advantage of the predicted cooling demands of the building and the performance of the integrated system. As a result, the MPC could save energy and reduce operating costs compared with the RBC. A case study shows that, for a 3-day operation, the MPC saves 36.9% energy and reduces 38.5% operating cost compared with the RBC.

Shi, Liang↗

DOE OSTI2014

Technology Solutions Case Study: Combustion Safety for Appliances Using Indoor Air

This case study describes how to assess and carry out the combustion safety procedures for appliances and heating equipment that uses indoor air for combustion in low-rise residential buildings. Only appliances installed in the living space, or in an area freely communicating with the living space, vented alone or in tandem with another appliance are considered here. This document is for inspectors, auditors, and technicians working in homes where energy upgrades are being conducted whether or not air infiltration control is included in the package of measures being applied. In the indoor combustion air case, guidelines summarized here are based on language provided in several of the codes to establish minimum requirements for the space using simplified prescriptive measures. In addition, building performance testing procedures are provided by testing agencies. The codes in combination with the test procedures offer comprehensive combustion safety coverage to address safety concerns, allowing inexperienced residential energy retrofit inspectors to effectively address combustion safety issues and allow energy retrofits to proceed.

Building America↗

DOE OSTI2019

Regression-based approach to modeling emerging HVAC technologies in EnergyPlus: A case study using a Vuilleumier-cycle heat pump

This paper presents a regression-based approach for modeling emerging heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) technologies using the user-defined coil object in the building simulation software EnergyPlus. The approach can use output from HVAC system models or experimental data to create regression-based performance curves, which are then used within the building simulation. The regression approach is an alternative to modeling new HVAC technologies directly in EnergyPlus or performing co-simulation with a system model in a separate program. The proposed approach connects component and system level designs, and their associated performance, with annual energy use and costs in a variety of climates. This study focused on a Vuilleumier-cycle heat pump for a commercial building. We describe (1) the design and modeling of this system, (2) methods for translating this performance into a simplified model in EnergyPlus, and (3) building energy simulation results in United States climate zones 4-6. The results predict that the Vuilleumier-cycle heat pump will use 34 to 44% less source heating energy than an 80% efficient gas furnace, and more source cooling energy than a SEER 13 air conditioner. Total energy costs are lower when electricity prices are high and natural gas prices are low.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2014

Evaluating an Exterior Insulation and Finish System for Deep Energy Retrofits

Exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS) are proprietary synthetic formulations that are applied to the exterior walls of buildings to serve as insulation and exterior cladding. The insulation thickness can vary from less than one inch to a foot or more. In this project the applicability of EIFS for residential deep energy retrofits was investigated through modeling and a case study home. The home was retrofitted using a site-applied four-inch-thick EIFS. Site-specific details were developed as required for the residential retrofit application. Site work and the costs of the EIFS system were documented. The demonstration home was modeled using Building Energy Optimization energy and cost analysis software to explore cost effectiveness of various EIFS insulation thicknesses in two climate locations.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2014

Evaluating an Exterior Insulation and Finish System for Deep Energy Retrofits

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2019

Development of an Assessment Method for Radiation Exposure from NORM in Construction Materials - 19032

Once radiological impact is usually considered to be related to nuclear energy accidents and atomic bombs, most of the research on radiation protection has been focused on artificial radionuclides and radioactive waste. Less attention had been given to radiation exposure due to the presence of naturally occurring radioactive materials in raw materials usually considered as not radioactive and used in manufacturing of many building materials. At national level, radiological data from building materials is not available as the control of building materials regarding the content of naturally occurring radionuclides is addressed for the first time in the EU Directive 2013/59/EURATOM. At international level the research developed is largely incomplete: data on the activity concentration measurements of Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40 in building materials used in the construction industry in the EU is non-statistically representative. The data collected are not enough to have an idea of the European situation, but they confirm high concentration of Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40, in some cases. Moreover, most of the research studies carried out in the EU are based on the assessment of the activity concentration index, which was derived for practical monitoring purposes to identify whether a dose criterion is met; to be used only as a screening tool for identifying materials which might be of concern. The dose criterion considers only effective dose due to γ-radiation, but population at home is also exposed to Rn-222 (and Rn-220) from soil, water and building material itself, sometimes to β radiation from superficial materials, and even to Cs-137 from some types of wood. The indoors exposure can be actually much higher than the value assessed with the dose criterion method. Also, in most cases toxic and radioactive components are inseparably. Therefore, all technical questions related to the toxic part of these materials should be addressed: an integrated approach is needed to assess the impacts of using these materials (new materials, recyclates and by-products). Until recently, radiation from natural sources seemed both unremarkable and unalterable - a background phenomenon. It is now known that doses from natural sources and in particular, decay products of radon can be remarkably high within houses in some areas. Therefore, concerning exposure to natural radiation sources, special provisions have been laid down in the EU Directive 1996/28 EURATOM. Still, the radiological evaluation of building materials was not mandatory in this Directive. The most recent EU Directive 2013/59/EURATOM brings some changes concerning the exposure to natural occurring radioactive materials but the previous screening method was kept. An effective dose of 1 mSv/year was set, as a basis for the exposure to radionuclides of natural origin (except for radon). This work seeks to develop an integrated radiological and chemical-mineralogical assessment methodology for realistic exposure scenarios concerning different types of raw materials, by-products and recyclates and used as building materials. The methodology includes the characterization of selected materials accounting for radiological exposure - calculation of effective dose; toxicity assessment - determination of chemical composition and leaching tests, study of changes in the microstructure and consequently in the radon emanation coefficient. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2023

Design and Development of a High Fidelity Cyber-Physical Testbed

In order to ensure that future critical infrastructure systems are resilient to various types of such advanced and persistent threats, it is important to develop and integrate tailored solutions that holistically address cyber-attack detection and mitigation in a timely manner such that adverse system impacts that impact a large population are avoided. Further, it is essential to create environments that allow control, protection and communication to exist within a realistic environment to analyze the effects of adverse conditions and system operating modes. This project aims to establish a high-fidelity testbed environment for modeling and simulating a single microgrid all the way up to a network of microgrids along with baseline controls, protection, and associated cyber communication. This is an important activity because accurately modeling and simulating the various power-electronics-based DERs and loads in a microgrid is critical to adequately capturing their behaviors over a wide range of off-normal conditions, as well as to evaluate the resilience of the system using the developed controls. The work presented in this report focuses on the process of building this high-fidelity testbed and the associated experimentation it enables. The model enables the creation of high-fidelity use cases and associated datasets that have been used extensively within the initiative to study resilience and support novel control development and prototyping. The work heavily leverages existing capability that is part of the high-fidelity cyber-physical system experimentation lab to create a power hardware-in-the-loop setup. The report also details the creation of an automated model building platform that can enable high-fidelity real-time models to be built without much effort allowing existing low-fidelity models to be analyzed in higher fidelity. Lastly, the report also discusses efforts center around scaling to large complex power system models to make the experimentation more effective.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗