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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 721 records · Page 40
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Escalation in the host-pathogen arms race: A host resistance response corresponds to a heightened bacterial virulence response

The zig-zag model of host-pathogen interaction describes the relative strength of defense response across a spectrum of pathogen-induced plant phenotypes. A stronger defense response results in increased resistance. Here, we investigate the strength of pathogen virulence during disease and place these findings in the context of the zig-zag model. Xanthomonas vasicola pv. holcicola ( Xvh ) causes sorghum bacterial leaf streak. Despite being widespread, this disease has not been described in detail at the molecular level. We divided diverse sorghum genotypes into three groups based on disease symptoms: water-soaked lesions, red lesions, and resistance. Bacterial growth assays confirmed that these three phenotypes represent a range of resistance and susceptibility. To simultaneously reveal defense and virulence responses across the spectrum of disease phenotypes, we performed dual RNA-seq on Xvh -infected sorghum. Consistent with the zig-zag model, the expression of plant defense-related genes was strongest in the resistance interaction. Surprisingly, bacterial virulence genes related to the type III secretion system (T3SS) and type III effectors (T3Es) were also most highly expressed in the resistance interaction. This expression pattern was observed at multiple time points within the sorghum- Xvh pathosystem. Further, a similar expression pattern was observed in Arabidopsis infected with Pseudomonas syringae for effector-triggered immunity via AvrRps4 but not AvrRpt2. Specific metabolites were able to repress the Xvh virulence response in vitro and in planta suggesting a possible signaling mechanism. Taken together, these findings reveal multiple permutations of the continually evolving host-pathogen arms race from the perspective of host defense and pathogen virulence responses.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2019

Dust Abrasion Damage on Martian Solar Arrays: Experimental Investigation and Opportunity Rover Performance Analysis

Here we investigate the effects of erosion and weathering that occur on III-V cover-glass interconnected cells (CICs) after exposure to Mars dust storm conditions. The durability of these materials in a Martian environment is not well characterized so we perform analogous experimentation. To replicate the dust impingement, test coupons were placed in an enclosure and sandblasted with Mars dust simulant. We show the J-V response dependency on both incident angle and exposure times. We find that the simulated Martian dust storm often results in damage to the anti-reflective coating and subsequent reduced short circuit current. Reduction in the open circuit voltage is observed, likely caused by structural damage to the crystal lattice after CIC fracture. We employ data-driven modeling to determine a performance degradation rate that is consistent with zero within uncertainty. We also quantify the soiling contribution and power degradation of the photovoltaic cells on Mars through analysis of 4.95 Martian years of report-out power conditions from the Opportunity rover. We find that atmospheric dust suspended due to a weather event does not result in instantaneous settled dust on the PV cells. We calculate via autocorrelation function that the dust settling rate is approximately 21 Sols from atmospheric dust suspension. The findings presented here deliver a realistic approximation for the insolation values and subsequent PV power expected over time on the Martian surface thus informing future dust abatement systems.

McMillon-Brown, Lyndsey↗
NASA NTRS2019

Dust Abrasion Damage on Martian Solar Arrays: Experimental Investigation and Opportunity Rover Performance Analysis

Here we investigate the effects of erosion and weathering that occur on III-V cover-glass interconnected cells (CICs) after exposure to Mars dust storm conditions. The durability of these materials in a Martian environment is not well characterized so we perform analogous experimentation. To replicate the dust impingement, test coupons were placed in an enclosure and sandblasted with Mars dust simulant. We show the J-V response dependency on both incident angle and exposure times. We find that the simulated Martian dust storm often results in damage to the anti-reflective coating and subsequent reduced short circuit current. Reduction in the open circuit voltage is observed, likely caused by structural damage to the crystal lattice after CIC fracture. We employ data-driven modeling to determine a performance degradation rate that is consistent with zero within uncertainty. We also quantify the soiling contribution and power degradation of the photovoltaic cells on Mars through analysis of 4.95 Martian years of report-out power conditions from the Opportunity rover. We find that atmospheric dust suspended due to a weather event does not result in instantaneous settled dust on the PV cells. We calculate via autocorrelation function that the dust settling rate is approximately 21 Sols from atmospheric dust suspension. The findings presented here deliver a realistic approximation for the insolation values and subsequent PV power expected over time on the Martian surface thus informing future dust abatement systems.

McMillon-Brown, Lyndsey↗
DOE OSTI2021

Role of the social factors in success of solar photovoltaic reuse and recycle programmes

By 2050, the cumulative mass of end-of-life photovoltaic (PV) modules may reach 80 Mt globally. The impacts could be mitigated by module recycling, repair and reuse; however, previous studies of PV circularity omit the consideration of critical social factors. Here we used an agent-based model to integrate social aspects with techno-economic factors, which provides a more realistic assessment of the circularity potential for previously studied interventions that assesses additional interventions that cannot be analysed using techno-economic analysis alone. We also performed a global sensitivity analysis using a machine-learning metamodel. We show that to exclude social factors underestimates the effect of lower recycling prices on PV material circularity, which highlights the relevance of considering social factors in future studies. Interventions aimed at changing customer attitudes about used PV boost the reuse of modules, although used modules can only satisfy one-third of the US demand during 2020–2050, which suggests that reuse should be complemented by recycling.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Optimal Demand Response Incorporating Distribution LMP with PV Generation Uncertainty

The utilization of aggregated demand-side flexibility via demand response (DR) has become a promising pathway for the integration of renewable energy resources in power systems. Nowadays, there are several management strategies for DR such as the price-based transactive control strategies. However, many of such existing price-based control strategies neglect the physics and operational constraints of the underlying distribution networks when computing the price, raising concerns regarding their theoretical and practical values. This paper studies this issue and investigates optimal DR (ODR) by incorporating the distribution locational marginal price (DLMP). In particular, we discuss DR in connection with DLMPs and propose a multiperiod bilevel optimization problem to find the ODR strategy. Here, the objective is to minimize the peak load, load fluctuation, and payments of load aggregators. In addition, a robust bilevel ODR model is formulated to provide a robust ODR strategy while minimizing operating costs under the worst-case realization of uncertainties; this mitigates the impact of forecasting errors on renewable energy resources. Then, we propose an efficient solution approach by employing the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions and strong duality. Simulation results are presented to illustrate the mutual impacts of the interaction between DR and DLMP and the benefits of the robust ODR strategy.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Aquapv

This project brings together a multidisciplinary team to develop tools and analysis that will help U.S. industry accelerate deployment of floating PV on reservoirs and estuaries through producing: • A tool to assess potential environmental interactions of FPV on reservoirs and estuaries and thresholds for corresponding impacts. • A tailored FPV-specific techno-economic tool to guide users on financial performance and corresponding design considerations. • A synthesized tool, AquaPV, that combines the environmental and economic tools. • A set of case studies on an open-loop reservoir with a traditional hydropower plant (i.e., connected to a natural waterbody), closed-loop reservoir with a proposed pumped storage hydropower plant (i.e., manmade and disconnected from a natural waterbody), and a marine estuary (i.e., where a river meets the ocean), with an FPV system designed and modeled for each site. • A review of regulatory, environmental, and stakeholder opportunities and challenges to identify clear regulatory and environmental pathways to siting FPV on U.S. reservoirs. • A novel, high-fidelity geospatial resource assessment to estimate FPV technical potential on reservoirs in the United States.

Phillips, TylerB. [Idaho National Laboratory (INL)↗
DOE OSTI2020

Distributed Solar Utility Tariff and Revenue Impact Analysis: A Guidebook for International Practitioners

Depending on a range of technical, economic, policy, regulatory, and market-related factors, the adoption of DPV may have a net positive or negative financial impact on utilities and ratepayers. This guidebook provides a methodological approach for quantifying the net financial impact of DPV on utilities (in the form of “net revenue losses”) and ratepayers (in the form of “net tariff impacts”). Written for technical staff at utilities, regulatory bodies, energy ministries, research institutes, and civil society organizations who wish to better understand the financial impacts of DPV in their jurisdiction, this guidebook can be used to inform important decisions regarding DPV compensation, tariff design, and regulatory cost allocations, among other aspects. It is focused exclusively on customer-sited DPV systems and adopts a primarily cost-based (as opposed to an equally valid value-based) perspective to understanding DPV financial impacts. The approach for calculating net revenue losses can be applied in nearly any utility jurisdiction, regardless of institutional arrangements, business models, or regulatory paradigms.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2023

FINAL TECHINICAL REPORT THUNDERING BUFFALO HEALTH AND WELLNESS CENTER

This U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Indian Energy supported project consists of energy conservation measures (ECMs) and a solar photovoltaic (PV) system to reduce cost of utility bills in a newly constructed Fort Peck Wellness Center, for use by tribal members in improving their physical and mental wellness. Construction of the building was outside the scope of the DOE supported project. A new 2-story wellness center was designed and constructed in Poplar, Montana. The wellness center is comprised of fitness areas, gymnasium, pool and spa, offices, and BOH support areas. The building was completed and has been operational for more than a year. A final measurement and verification of energy savings was completed after one year of operation and the results are presented herein, showing an energy savings 20% higher than the originally models indicated.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Characterizing Current THD’s Dependency on Solar Irradiance and Supraharmonics Profiling for a Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Power Plant

The rapidly increasing distributed energy resources (DERs) in power systems are now getting interconnected to set community grid structures, where power quality will be a major concern. The grid-to-grid (G2G) bidirectional power transfer among the distribution microgrid will not be considered commercially feasible unless the upstream harmonics are under the limits. The aggregation of such harmonics, measured as total harmonic distortion (THD), is feared to be beyond tolerable limits with the progression of rooftop grid-tied PV-like installations. Hence, this THD needs to be characterized with DER generation end variables. In this work, the photovoltaic (PV) DERs’ dependency on environment variables such as irradiance was profiled in the context of generating and injecting harmonics into the grid. A mathematical model of a grid-tied three-phase PV DER was developed as part of this correlation characterization, matching the fundamental unit structure of a 1.4 MW solar canopy located on the Florida International University (FIU) Miami campus. To determine the qualitative association with produced THD patterns, the model was evaluated with various irradiance settings. A real-time digital simulation (RTDS) platform was used to verify it. Following this confirmation, sets of data from power quality meters at the point of common coupling and FIU field sensors were utilized to validate further the correlation model. The results showed that the grid current’s THD exhibited a high correlation with the irradiance profile and its variation over time. The early morning and late afternoon periods of the day, associated with a low irradiance, constantly had higher harmonics generated from the PV DER. The midday THD was rather rational with partial shadings, hence a geolocation-dependent factor. These findings were verified by an RTDS and validated by real field data. In quantifying the THD injected by a single DER at a high-frequency (2–150 kHz) supraharmonics (SH) level, a 3% peak increment in magnitude was observed from the high-fixed to the low-fixed irradiance profile. The correlation characteristics depicted that the hybrid microgrid suffered from a daytime-dependent harmonic insertion from the grid-tied DER. This is a global problem unless specific measures are taken to mitigate the harmonics. The electrically notorious higher-frequency SH was found to increase proportionally. The G2G power transfer can be limited because of the higher THD in the early morning and late afternoon, which will also worsen because the numbers of grid-tied PV DERs (i.e., rooftop solar and industrial solar) are likely to increase rapidly soon. The community grid structure can thus have a controlled harmonics filtration setup purposefully designed to address the findings of this work, which also fall within the scope of our future research.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamic Temporal Graph Sequence Data for Resilience-Oriented Distribution Network Reconfiguration

This dataset comprises temporal dynamic graph sequences generated from power grid simulations focused on grid reconfiguration to enhance resilience. The simulations model failure propagation under varying conditions, with nodes assigned distinct failure probabilities. For each time step, the dataset captures the evolution of node states (functional or failed) and features critical to grid operations, such as pv_output, load_profile, load_dispatch, dg_output, loss, and voltage. Node types include sources, normal loads, and nodes with specific equipment like PVs, micro turbines, or shunt capacitors. The dataset is structured to support the training of dynamic graph neural networks, facilitating research on node feature prediction and edge dynamics under failure scenarios. Three distinct configurations are included, providing a robust foundation for modeling power grid resilience.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimized V1G and V2G Electric Vehicle Fleet Management and Grid Transaction at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego, CA

The overall technical goal of the project was to demonstrate an all-electric bi-directional non-tactical fleet at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Miramar that was integrated and controlled with other distributed energy resources (DERs) (i.e., PV, stationary battery, and building loads) to provide resilience to critical electric loads in the event of grid outages, to minimize charging costs, and to provide economic energy resources to electricity markets. In this project, the specific, technical objectives were: 1. Demonstrate that bi-directional electric vehicles can provide critical complementary services to fixed storage batteries in microgrid applications while performing function as non-tactical vehicles. 2. Demonstrate participation of bi-directional (V2G) and unidirectional (V1G) PEVs for demand management and minimization of charging costs. 3. Demonstrate integration of multiple DERs for grid service participation. US Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Miramar in San Diego was the site of this electric vehicle-to-microgrid-utility grid test and demonstration project. Existing microgrid assets in this study included (1) a public works building; (2) a 30-kW rooftop photovoltaic (PV) system and (3) a separate 250 kW carport PV system. In this project, six bi-directional V2G vans were located at the MCAS Miramar’s showcase building-scale microgrid to develop and test technical capabilities that V2G can provide in microgrid applications (e.g., cost reduction and resiliency). These resources provided aggregated demand management and simulated participation in current retail DR programs. The vehicles used in this demonstration were selected because they provided functionality that MCAS Miramar needed, 15 passenger transport and facilities work cargo carrying capacity, and bi-directional charging capability that the research project required. All vehicles in this study were manufactured and distributed by VIA Motors, Inc. There were six vehicles total and each was VIA’s VTRUX eREV V2G model, a modified General Motors Chevrolet 2500 2WD van. Three of the vans were configured as passenger vans and the other three were configured as cargo vans. Each van had an on-board bi-direcrtional inverter/charger, Bel Power Solutions model 350INVCHGT150-120-240-8G nominally rated at +/-15 kW. The VIA van’s charging connector follows the J1772 charging protocol. The bi-directional EVSEs demonstrated in this study were manufactured by Coritech, Inc. Each VGI-80-AC charging station enabled enhanced V2G charging capability to a Clipper Creek CS-100 charging module. The enhanced capabilities included ethernet communication following the SEP2.0 protocol with a distributed energy resource function set and an operator screen displaying real-time SOC, voltage, and current. The VGI-80-AC charging stations are classified as level 2 with a maximum current output of 80 A or effectively 19 kW. The VIA van’s onboard charger limited the charging and discharging power to 15 kW in each direction. A control computer was installed in the EWOC and connected to an existing monitor. The V2G control communication network was a completely stand-alone closed system that did not have any connection to any other networks on the base. A cybersecure remote communication connection was created with a cellular modem, firewall hardware, and a virtual private network configuration.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Virtual Synchronous Generator Control of Multi-port Autonomous Reconfigurable Solar Plants (MARS)

Multi-port autonomous reconfigurable solar power plant (MARS) is an integrated concept for integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) and energy storage systems (ESS) to transmission alternating current (ac) grid and high-voltage direct current (HVdc) links. The integrated development incorporates advanced control methods to provide enhanced grid ancillary services such as fast frequency responses and dynamic voltage support. In this paper, the virtual synchronous generator (VSG) control algorithm of MARS is discussed. The proposed VSG-based control enables enhanced synthetic inertial response and flexible frequency response characteristics of hybrid PV and ESS power plants in accordance with grid ancillary service requirements. Multi-port power electronics interface allows controlled emergency power support from MARS to local transmission ac grid and remote grid through the HVdc link. The performance of VSG control is validated using a reduced-order model of MARS in Simulink. Methods for estimating grid ancillary service capabilities of MARS are also discussed.

Pan, Jiuping↗
NASA NTRS1999

A Scale-Invariant Model of Statistical Mechanics and Modified Forms of the First and the Second Laws of Thermodynamics

A scale-invariant statistical theory of fields is presented that leads to invariant definition of density, velocity, temperature, and pressure, The definition of Boltzmann constant is introduced as k(sub k) = m(sub k)v(sub k)c = 1.381 x 10(exp -23) J x K(exp -1), suggesting that the Kelvin absolute temperature scale is equivalent to a length scale. Two new state variables called the reversible heat Q(sub rev) = TS and the reversible work W(sub rev) = PV are introduced. The modified forms of the first and second law of thermodynamics are presented. The microscopic definition of heat (work) is presented as the kinetic energy due to the random (peculiar) translational, rotational, and pulsational motions. The Gibbs free energy of an element at scale Beta is identified as the total system energy at scale (Beta-1), thus leading to an invariant form of the first law of thermodynamics U(sub Beta) = Q(sub Beta) - W(sub Beta) +N(e3)U(sub Beta-1).

Sohrab, Siavash H.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Privacy-preserving federated learning: Application to behind-the-meter solar photovoltaic generation forecasting

Here, the growing usage of decentralized renewable energy sources has made accurate estimation of their aggregated generation crucial for maintaining grid flexibility and reliability. However, the majority of distributed photovoltaic (PV) systems are behind-the-meter (BTM) and invisible to utilities, leading to three challenges in obtaining an accurate forecast of their aggregated output. Firstly, traditional centralized prediction algorithms used in previous studies may not be appropriate due to privacy concerns. There is therefore a need for decentralized forecasting methods, such as federated learning (FL), to protect privacy. Secondly, there has been no comparison between localized, centralized, and decentralized forecasting methods for BTM PV production, and the trade-off between prediction accuracy and privacy has not been explored. Lastly, the computational time of data-driven prediction algorithms has not been examined. This article presents a FL power forecasting method for PVs, which uses federated learning as a decentralized collaborative modeling approach to train a single model on data from multiple BTM sites. The machine learning network used to design this FL-based BTM PV forecasting model is a multi-layered perceptron, which ensures privacy and security of the data. Comparing the suggested FL forecasting model to non-private centralized and entirely private localized models revealed that it has a high level of accuracy, with an RMSE that is 18.17% lower than localized models and 9.9% higher than centralized models.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Standardized nomenclature for photovoltaic connectors

Photovoltaic (PV) systems rely on discrete connectors for the efficient and safe flow of power from module to module and from strings to combiner boxes and inverters. Despite their functional importance, no common nomenclature for PV connectors currently exists, resulting in confusion and miscommunication. Misunderstood terms like "MC4 compatible", "cross-mating", "intermating", "female", and "male" can lead to installation and maintenance errors and compromise system reliability. We believe a standardized terminology will reduce confusion, help support installation best practices, aid in maintenance and repair, inform next-generation designs, and provide a technical basis for improved codes and standards. To that end, we are proposing a standardized glossary for 4 mm PV connectors (the most common type of connector used in PV applications) based on, and validated by, a Sandia National Laboratories' investigation that included the following sources: 1) a comprehensive review of official documents from 20 connector manufacturers, including schematics, datasheets, installation manuals, and catalogs, as well as relevant patents; 2) two rounds of surveys distributed to stakeholders, including connector manufacturers, engineers, asset owners, test labs, and researchers; and 3) visual examination of 25 different models of 4 mm single-pole DC PV connectors to document variations in design and functionality. This work provides a foundation for establishing a clear and consistent terminology for PV connectors that will in turn enable progress toward greater reliability and collaboration across the industry.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Deep Reinforcement Scheduling of Energy Storage Systems for Real-time Voltage Regulation in Unbalanced LV Networks with High PV Penetration

The ever-growing higher penetration of distributed energy resources (DERs) in low-voltage (LV) distribution systems brings both opportunities and challenges to voltage support and regulation. This paper proposes a deep reinforcement learning (DRL)-based scheduling scheme of energy storage systems (ESSs) to mitigate system voltage deviations in unbalanced LV distribution networks. The ESS-based voltage regulation problem is formulated as a multi-stage quadratic stochastic program, with the objective of minimizing the expected total daily voltage regulation cost while satisfying operational constraints. While existing voltage regulation methods are mostly focused on onetime- step control, this paper explores a day-horizon systemwide voltage regulation problem. In other words, the size of action and state spaces are extremely high-dimensional and need to be delicately handled. Furthermore, in order to overcome the difficulty of modeling uncertainties and develop a realtime solution, a learn-to-schedule feedback control framework is proposed by adapting the problem to a model-free DRL setting. The proposed algorithm is tested on a customized 6-bus system and a modified IEEE 34-bus system. Simulation results validate the effectiveness and near-optimality of voltage regulation by ESS in comparison with a deterministic quadratic program solution.

Wang, Shengyi↗
DOE OSTI2021

REopt Lite Geothermal Heat Pump Design Requirements

This document describes the design requirements for the geothermal heat pump (GHP) module being added to the existing REopt Lite web tool. This document describes the purpose, users, and functional requirements to which the modified web tool shall conform. This document will be revised, as required, throughout the development phase with consensus between the Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) and NREL. The GHP module will expand existing REopt Lite capabilities to include techno-economic optimization of GHP systems, either stand alone, or integrated with the other existing technology types, namely solar photovoltaics (PV), wind power, battery energy storage, thermal energy storage, combined hear and power (CHP), and absorption chiller. Included in this submission are links to the REopt Lite web tool and open-source Git-Hub page. The REopt Lite tool can also be accessed directly via the NREL Developer Network. A link is also provided for the REopt report that overviews the module's capabilities.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Operational Probabilistic Tools for Solar Uncertainty (OPTSUN) (Final Project Report for DOE Solar Forecasting II Project)

Increasing levels of solar PV can challenge system operations and may require novel methods to operate the power system reliably and efficiently. Power system operating plans generally use deterministic forecasts, in which the variable energy resources are represented by the expected value for each interval of the decision horizon. Probabilistic forecasts are relatively new but have the potential to address the shortfalls of deterministic forecasts. However, understanding how best to use such forecasts is still a key gap in industry and was the focus of this project. The project had three workstreams. In a forecasting workstream, improvements were made to baseline probabilistic forecasts using a number of new approaches such as machine learning methods and improved input data. In a design workstream, advanced simulation tools used these forecasts to investigate newly proposed reserve determination methods. Lastly, in a demonstration workstream a scheduling management platform (SMP) was developed to leverage probabilistic forecasts in a modular and customizable manner. In order to study the benefits that could be accrued, the project team collaborated with three utility partners (Duke Energy, Southern Company and Hawaiian Electric) to deliver improved probabilistic forecasts for each region and to model each region in case studies using advanced production cost modeling tools. Different methods to determine operating reserve requirements from probabilistic forecasts were developed, simulated, and tested across each region. The benefits of using these newly proposed methods varied by utility, but, in general, using probabilistic forecasts as well as historical data to set the reserve requirements seems to improve reliability related results, with less risk of reserve or supply shortfalls. The cost implications were not always straightforward; in some cases the new methods could show a reduction in expected operating costs, but often the increase in reserves associated with better risk mitigation using probabilistic forecasts could result in an increase in operating costs in the simulations. The SMP tool was developed to process probabilistic forecasts from their initial receipt through to scheduling decisions. This open-source tool consists of several modules for scenario development, reserve requirements calculation, and visualization. The SMP tool was demonstrated to a wide range of operators and stakeholders at all three utilities and further improved based on their feedback. The tool will be available on www.epri.com/optsun. The proposed probabilistic information-based reserve determination approaches have the potential to be implemented by different regions to ensure an economic and reliable power system operation on power systems integrating increasing levels of variable renewable resources. The innovative yet practical methods developed in this project demonstrated tangible benefits from using probabilistic forecasts beyond just study-based assessments to include three unique balancing areas. The demonstrated benefits across the multiple utility environments, are expected to provide system operators in all regions the confidence required and a platform to adopt the new forecasting and operating methods.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗