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Reactor and fuel cycle performance of light water reactor fuel with 235 U enrichments above 5%

Recent advances in nuclear fuel materials research, particularly on the topic of accident-tolerant fuels, have brought up potential opportunities for expanding the operating envelope of existing light water reactors. As many of the performance improvements offered by these technologies may be most fully realized by increasing fuel enrichment beyond the standard 5% limit, this paper examines the potential reactor performance and fuel cycle performance of low-enriched uranium oxide fueled light water reactors by generically considering pressurized water reactors with 235 U enrichment from 5 to 7%. Advanced cladding, including accident-tolerant cladding, has the potential to increase fuel burnup limits related to hydrogen in the cladding that coincide with those limits associated with end-of-life reactivity. Therefore, higher enrichment will be necessary in order to realize the higher fuel burnups. This work includes evaluation of the fuel cycle length, discharge burnup, reactivity coefficients, and fuel cycle performance, including radioactive waste and environmental impact metrics per unit energy generated. The analysis was performed using the evaluation metrics from the US Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy Fuel Cycle Evaluation and Screening Study. The reactor performance and safety analysis show that enrichments between 5 and 7% would have similar fuel temperature and moderator temperature coefficients. However, the soluble boron coefficient would decrease in magnitude, requiring more corrosive boric acid in the coolant or other methods of reactivity control during the fuel cycle. At these higher enrichments the maximum burnup at the rim of the fuel pellet would increase by almost a factor of two, which is expected to impact the formation of high-burnup structure in the fuel and the corresponding thermo-mechanical fuel properties. The fuel cycle performance assessment shows that increasing enrichment reduces the quantity of high-level waste disposed per unit energy generated, but it increases the natural resource requirements normalized to a gigawatt-electricity-per-year basis. Another impact is the slightly higher discharge burnup, resulting in somewhat different activity levels of the spent nuclear fuel and high-level waste radioactivity at 100 and 100,000 years after fuel discharge. The environmental impacts—including land use, water use, carbon emission, and radiological exposure—are of the same magnitude per unit energy generated. Finally, however, the impacts are distributed differently. Less than 5% enrichment has marginally more impact on the back-end of the fuel cycle, and greater than 5% enrichment has marginally more impact on the front-end of the fuel cycle. Ultimately, no neutronic or reactor safety hindrances to employing light water reactor fuel with enrichments greater than 5% are identified; given the achievable reactor performance benefits with advanced fuels, further practical exploration of increased enrichment fuel is recommended.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Review of Tools for Modeling Core Radial Expansion in Liquid Metal-Cooled Fast Reactors

Core radial expansion in liquid-metal cooled fast reactor systems is a well-known phenomenon that produces strong reactivity feedback effects. It is crucial from a safety standpoint to design a reactor with the proper core restraint system to guide expansion of the fuel assemblies into a formation that produces negative reactivity feedback in accident conditions. However, the modeling of core radial expansion and its associated reactivity feedback is extremely challenging. Liquid metal-cooled fast reactor designers (both industry and commercial) have pointed to improved modeling of core radial expansion as a key modeling challenge for these types of reactors. The Department of Energy Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (DOE-NEAMS) program has an important role to play in helping to develop a robust, predictive tool for this phenomenon. A literature review has been performed to identify current simulation capabilities applicable to the prediction of core radial expansion in liquid metal-cooled fast reactors and the resultant reactivity feedback effects. An overview as well as a detailed description of the multi-physics phenomena underlying core radial expansion is given in the first two chapters. The objective of this report is to identify existing software that has been or could be applied to the core radial expansion problem, and then to identify possible paths to develop a robust, coupled Multiphysics tool for advanced analysis, in which all three physics (radiation transport, structural mechanics, thermal fluids) are taken into account considering feedback effects from each physics to the other. Several computer codes and workflows have been developed in the United States and abroad to perform individual aspects of radial expansion calculations or to perform loosely coupled analysis. No code system currently exists which tightly and robustly couples the neutronics, thermal hydraulics, and thermal mechanical physics with enough detail to fully resolve the complex core radial expansion reactivity feedback effects. The future availability of such a code system is of vital importance to fully understanding the reactivity feedback effects that occur due to radial expansion, and consequently to optimizing the design of the core restraint system. A potential code development path forward using MOOSE-based tools is suggested in order to leverage the natural tight coupling and robustness of MOOSE-based applications. Additionally, potential gaps for modeling and common assumptions are listed which require further investigation to ensure accuracy for prediction of deformations.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

Leveraging the High Flux Isotope Reactor for nuclear fuel development: a review of experiments, facilities, and capabilities

Materials testing reactors (MTRs) have been used to develop in-core nuclear fuels and materials since the outset of the nuclear power industry. However, the closure of prominent MTRs worldwide and protracted construction timelines for new facilities have increased reliance on existing infrastructure for near-term irradiation testing needs. One facility that can support these needs is the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. HFIR boasts the highest steady-state neutron flux in the Western Hemisphere and, among other roles, has been used to rapidly administer high fluences on fuels and materials for fission and fusion reactor applications. This paper reviews HFIR facilities and infrastructure, fuel-bearing irradiation experiments conducted in HFIR, and select nonfueled experiments that demonstrate advanced techniques transferable to fuels experiments. Collectively, these examples underscore HFIR's potential role as a nuclear fuels testbed supporting both the existing reactor fleet and advanced reactor fuel development.

Fuel qualification↗

Qualifying the Instrument Thimble 11 Test Position in the Advanced Test Reactor Critical

The Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) is a versatile nuclear research reactor located at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) in Eastern Idaho, United States of America. It is one of the most powerful and flexible research reactors in the world and is primarily used for materials testing, isotope production and basic nuclear science research. The ATR is a light-water-cooled, beryllium-moderated reactor with a nominal thermal power capacity of 250 MW utilizing specially designed fuel, arranged in a serpentine pattern to create 9 flux traps. The special design of ATR allows for the neutron flux within each of the flux traps providing flexibility for experiments, programs and allowing experiments with different dose requirements to be irradiated simultaneously. The Advance Test Reactor Critical (ATRC) is a full-scale replica of the ATR core but is housed in a pool instead of a pressure vessel. ATRC is usually operated at less than 600 watts [1]. There are 12 dry instrument thimbles located around the outside of the core tank where a variety of measurement equipment is housed to facilitate reactor operations. Currently Instrument Thimble 11 (IT-11) is not utilized in ATR or ATRC. A range of measurements is ongoing to qualify IT-11 as a test platform for nuclear instrumentation research, development and further experimentation.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

Fuel Cycle Considerations for Uranium, Plutonium and Minor Actinide Partitioning and Transmutation

This paper is written in memorial of the authors' past collaborations with Max Salvatores in the area of advanced nuclear fuel cycle evaluation. In this regard, a summary is provided of the results from two international studies led by Max Salvatores in which the authors participated: (1) the expert group on Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Recycling of Transuranics in Fast Nuclear Reactors, and (2) the expert group on Potential Benefits and Impacts of Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles with Actinide Partitioning and Transmutation. Both of these studies presented the authors with the opportunity to contribute the results of past and ongoing research in the U.S., facilitating engagement and discussion on these subjects with researchers from other countries and organizations, resulting in the creation of broad international views on the relative benefits and challenges of transuranic recycle (NEA, 2012a; NEA, 2012b), a testament to the leadership and capabilities of Max Salvatores. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Taiwo, Temitope↗

Advanced Test Reactor Overview

Power Point presentation regarding ATR, intended to be presented to university students and/or new INL employees.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

MOOSE Reactor Module: An Open-Source Capability for Meshing Nuclear Reactor Geometries

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (NEAMS) program has developed numerous physics solvers utilizing the open-source Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE) framework for multiphysics reactor analysis. These solvers require input finite element meshes representing the discretized spatial domain. Typically, reactor analysts turn to licensed tools for the creation of reactor geometry meshes. Recently, open-source functionality has been added to the MOOSE framework to mesh common reactor geometries and improve MOOSE-based nuclear reactor application user workflows. The new functionality is primarily contained in the new Reactor module of MOOSE and includes support for hexagonal pins, assemblies, and cores, extended Cartesian geometry support, options for modeling static and rotating control drums within a hexagonal assembly, core periphery triangulation, and automatic tagging of pin, assembly, plane, and depletion regions for easier post processing of physics results. A set of reactor geometry mesh builder objects further streamlines the construction of hexagonal and Cartesian cores and allows mapping of materials to regions during mesh generation. The meshes produced with the MOOSE Reactor module may be used directly within MOOSE-based applications or exported as Exodus II files for use in other finite element solvers. The tools have been demonstrated and verified using a variety of NEAMS physics solvers on a range of reactor applications, including a sodium-cooled fast reactor core analysis using Griffin, a fast reactor assembly thermal deformation analysis using MOOSE Tensor Mechanics, and a heat pipe–cooled microreactor coupled analysis using Griffin, Bison, and Sockeye. MOOSE’s Reactor module provides significant advantages compared to the use of external meshing tools when analyzing Cartesian and hexagonal reactor lattices using MOOSE-based applications: immediate accessibility (open-source) to the end user, low barrier to entry for new users, speed of mesh generation, volume preservation of meshed fuel pins, and simplification of analysis workflow when used in conjunction with MOOSE-based applications.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

Prioritization of Existing Reactor Materials

The Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies (AMMT) Program is aiming at the faster incorporation of new materials and manufacturing technologies into complex nuclear-related systems. An integrated approach, combining advanced characterization, high-throughput and accelerated testing, modeling and simulation, including machine learning and artificial intelligence, will be employed. Although 316H (Fe–[16–18]Cr–[10–14]Ni–[2–3]Mo–[0.04–0.1]C) has been identified as a key alloy to be integrated into the AMMT accelerated alloy qualification approach because of its relevance for many current and future nuclear energy reactors, many other alloys could be considered for the advanced fabrication of innovative, high-performance nuclear components. Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) are collaborating on identifying the most promising alloy candidates relevant for the AMMT Program. A selection criteria matrix was established to evaluate the alloys considering their relative importance and technological readiness levels for nuclear energy applications, with a focus on laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Because of the broad range of potential candidate alloys, ORNL and INL focused on nickel-based alloys, and ANL and PNNL mainly evaluated iron-based alloys. PNNL previously published material scorecards reports on several key alloys, and this report provides a broader overview of iron- and nickel-based candidate alloys, expending beyond alloys well-known to the nuclear community.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

MOOSE: A Modular Platform for Fission and Fusion Multiphysics

The Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE) Framework, as well as MOOSE-based simulation tools, have accelerated the development of fission energy and advanced reactor technologies through the United States Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Science, Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling & Simulation (NEAMS) Program. MOOSE contains a complete platform of multiphysics simulation capabilities, capable of running on massively parallel systems, and is developed in an open-source manner with great attention paid to high-quality software quality assurance practices. This overall approach could greatly benefit the fusion energy community, which requires rapid design iteration and improvement in order to facilitate the successful development of fusion as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels. In the first half of this talk, applications of MOOSE and MOOSE-based tools for advanced reactor designs will be showcased, as well as MOOSE ecosystem infrastructure (such as the NEAMS Virtual Test Bed) that enables and accelerates fission reactor design. In the second half, a discussion of how the MOOSE approach to modeling and simulation is currently being applied internationally in fusion energy research and development at the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority will be discussed, and ongoing/future domestic research efforts will be highlighted.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

Preliminary Feasibility of Printing, Microstructure Analysis and Mechanical Performance of a Down Selected Ni Alloy

This report is submitted as completion of a Milestone 3 deliverable under work package ORNL CT-23OR1304051 in support of the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies (AMMT) program. The AMMT program is aiming at the faster incorporation of new materials and manufacturing technologies into complex nuclear-related systems. An integrated approach, combining advanced characterization, high-throughput and accelerated testing, modeling and simulation including machine learning and artificial intelligence will be employed. While 316H (Fe-16-18Cr-10-14Ni-2-3Mo-0.04-0.1C) has been identified as a key alloy to be integrated into the AMMT accelerated alloy qualification approach due its relevance for many current and future nuclear energy reactors, many other alloys could be considered for the advanced fabrication of innovate high-performance nuclear components. ANL, INL, ORNL and PNNL are collaborating on identifying the most promising alloy candidates relevant for the AMMT program. A selection criteria matrix was established to evaluate the alloys considering their relative importance and technological readiness levels for nuclear energy applications, with a focus on laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Due to the broad range of potential candidate alloys, ORNL and INL focused on Ni-based alloys, while ANL and PNNL mainly evaluated Fe-based alloys. PNNL previously published materials scorecards reports on several key alloys and this report is providing a broader overview of Ni-based candidate alloys, expending beyond alloys well-known to the nuclear community. Of particular interest are alloys that are currently commercially available in powder form due to the growing demand from other industries that have invested heavily in additive manufacturing. Among these alloys, Haynes 282 (Fe-20Cr-20Co-8Mo) was selected due to its superior strength at high temperature compared to the code-qualified alloy 617 (Ni-20-24Cr-10-15Co-8-10Mo). To assess the integration of this new alloy into the AMMT digital manufacturing framework, we performed the rapid optimization of alloy 282 printing parameters on a Renishaw 250 machine, the fabrication of sufficient materials for extensive characterization and mechanical testing both at ORNL and INL, and added the printing data into the digital platform via the Peregrine software. A detailed analysis of the LPBF 718 alloy was also conducted, with creep specimens being tested at 600-650°C and characterized by advanced electron microscopy. The alloy superior mechanical strength and great printability associated with the extensive database that has already been generated highlight the promising potential of LPBF 718 as a candidate alloy for the AMMT program. INL, ANL and PNNL have generated similar reports and all the information will be compiled into a final M2 milestone report to provide the AMMT leadership team with clear recommendations on the down selection of reactor materials, as well as establish a roadmap for the qualification of these selected alloys.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Design and Prototyping of Advanced Control Systems for Advanced Reactors Operating in the Future Electric Grid (Final Report)

Despite its significant advantages as a baseload, low-carbon energy source, the U.S. nuclear power industry has faced increasing difficulties in maintaining economic competitiveness in a rapidly evolving energy market. The economic conditions faced by the current fleet of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the U.S. deregulated electricity market require a concerted effort to mitigate specific cost factors. Many units are struggling to stay competitive, and some premature shutdowns have occurred. Besides, in response to the large penetration of renewable energy sources, the role of nuclear power plants as pure baseload units needs to be reconsidered. Based on these experiences, operational flexibility is considered a fundamental requirement for the next generation of nuclear reactors to be competitive in the future energy market. The deployment of advanced reactors capable of operating within a new power grid paradigm, known as the Integrated Energy System (IES) was investigated. This approach combines new reactor designs with Thermal Energy Storage (TES) technologies, allowing the nuclear reactor to maintain a steady power output without the need for constant adjustments in response to load demand fluctuations. With this configuration, the reactor operates as a baseload unit, experiencing only very gradual power transients, while the energy storage facility within the power conversion cycle acts as a peaking unit.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Sensitive Resources Assessment and Forest Analysis for the Proposed Versatile Test Reactor, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

The US Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is a leading institution in advanced materials, supercomputing, neutrons, and nuclear science. As a research laboratory managed by UT-Battelle, LLC for DOE, ORNL has national priorities in energy, security, and scientific discovery that necessitate facility improvements and expansions. DOE is also committed to environmental stewardship. The laboratory is located on the ~32,000-acre (~13,000-ha) Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), much of which is categorized as a National Environmental Research Park (NERP) and a state Wildlife Management Area. DOE works with the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA), Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC), US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), US Department of Agriculture, and other agencies to serve as an effective steward of the ORR. Accordingly, project managers must conform to environmental regulations, agreements, and policies at the federal, state, and institutional levels. Per 40 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) 1508.14, potential effects on research and science education also represent potential effects of federal actions on the NERP, and impacts on, e.g., deer harvest, must be considered on the Oak Ridge Wildlife Management Area when other aspects of the human environment are affected. The United States currently has no fast neutron testing capability to support advanced nuclear research and development. The proposed Versatile Test Reactor (VTR) will take advantage of current investments by the US government and private industry in nuclear reactors to expedite the design and construction process, using proven technology to create a world-class scientific infrastructure. The VTR will take advantage of fast neutrons provided by this proven technology, along with a capability to rapidly insert, conduct, and remove state-of-the-art experiments. An advantage of the VTR is that it can support future innovations in experimental capabilities without modifying the facility. The VTR will support progress in a variety of science and technology areas, including testing and qualification of advanced reactor fuels; testing and qualification of innovative structural materials; testing of innovative components and instruments; validation of advanced modeling and simulation tools; and versatility for future technical missions. Through proven technology, the VTR can take advantage of existing reactor designs and operating experience to reduce the risk, cost, and time for design and construction. The top available resources of DOE laboratories, industry, and universities will be used to expedite reactor design and construction toward developing the scientific infrastructure that affords a strong testing capability that can be sustained over many years. This report summarizes current knowledge of natural and cultural resources primarily within the VTR construction area. At the time of this report, the proposed VTR site design includes a construction area of ~150.4 acres (~69.9 ha), which contains an ~51.3-acre (~20.8-ha) operations area, located within forested natural areas of the ORR. The primary goal of the work presented here was to evaluate potential effects on sensitive resources that might result from development and construction activities associated with VTR. In addition to on-the-ground surveys during spring and summer 2020 by the ORNL Natural Resources Management Program and Aquatic Ecology Group staff, this report makes use of historical (pre-1995) and contemporary (1995 to present) data from additional confirmed sources (e.g., TDEC). Likewise, forest conditions were compiled from a 2011 forest inventory and supplemented with limited ground observations in 2020. The individuals who obtained and compiled the data presented here are familiar with and routinely assess sensitive resources on the ORR. Anyone who references this report must consider that the timing of surveys did not permit a complete delineation of the resources that will be affected. If the VTR project proceeds, additional surveys will be required to account for the seasonal patterns of various threatened and endangered species. Data deficiencies and potential resources that likely went undetected are indicated where possible. Accordingly, this report should facilitate more environmentally sound decisions during planning and 2 development of the VTR site, provide a foundation for further assessment of sensitive and cultural resources, and help project managers better address regulatory guidance and DOE policies on sustainable development in compliance with, for example, the US Endangered Species Act (ESA), Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA), Tennessee Rare Plant Protection and Conservation Act of 1985, Tennessee Nongame and Endangered or Threatened Wildlife Species Conservation Act of 1974, several federal and state regulations regarding aquatic resource protection, and site-specific policies as outlined in various ORR management plans developed by ORNL and TWRA for DOE.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

Electron tomography of unirradiated and irradiated nuclear graphite

Graphite is the moderator material of several Generation IV nuclear reactor concepts, as well as the British Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors (AGR). Porosity can heavily influence the material properties, mechanical irradiation response, and neutron induced shrinkage or swelling of nuclear-grade graphite. Due to the sub-micron size of several types of pores found in graphite, only a high-resolution imaging technique such as electron tomography are capable of visualizing these features in three dimensions. In this research, we used electron tomography to characterize as-received and neutron irradiated samples of IG-110 nuclear-grade graphite to show for the first time the 3D structure of both native and irradiation-induced nano-cracks. This technique also reveals unique characteristics of graphite such as the structure that surrounds pores and could be used to inform molecular dynamic simulations of irradiated graphite and experimental techniques such as gas-absorption. This work also shows the utility of this technique for the study of other nuclear porous carbon-based materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

The state of the art for neutron irradiation experiments from the perspective of the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR)

Irradiation experiment campaigns are critical to advancing nuclear energy technologies by providing data on material performance under relevant radiation conditions. Successful irradiation experiments require integrated design efforts that balance technical goals with facility constraints. Here, this paper presents an expert-informed overview of irradiation experiment design at the High Flux Isotope Reactor. It addresses the nuclear materials research and irradiation experiment communities to guide them toward developing technically sound, facility-compatible campaigns. The High Flux Isotope Reactor is a multipurpose reactor supporting isotope production, neutron scattering, and materials testing. Its high, steady-state neutron flux is ideal for irradiation experiments, but successful execution demands coordinated thermal, structural, and reactor physics analyses. The paper outlines the complete development workflow from concept definition and design optimization to safety qualification and post-irradiation examination. Standardized capsule platforms are also discussed in terms of flexibility, specimen capacity, and thermal performance. Common failure modes such as unanticipated geometric variations, can impact temperature-dose profiles and compromise data reliability. Therefore, detailed thermal modeling and accurate as-built characterization are essential for meaningful post-irradiation data interpretation. Key recommendations include early engagement all stakeholders, clearly defined design expectations, and alignment of specimen geometries with post-irradiation examination capabilities. This approach reduces design iterations, enhances data quality, and supports more efficient use of irradiation resources. Strategic and well-planned irradiation testing not only improves individual campaign success but also accelerates the deployment of advanced nuclear technologies. By closing critical data gaps and reducing development risks, the nuclear materials community can more effectively contribute to the future of clean, resilient energy systems.

Experiments↗

Assembling Multiphysics Nuclear Reactor Simulations Using the MOOSE Framework

The Multiphysics Object Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE) [1] is an open-source, parallel finite element framework which provides the foundation for many advanced modeling and simulation tools developed under the Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (NEAMS) Program [2] for the analysis of advanced reactors. The MOOSE framework provides the common foundational capability on which many NEAMS codes for reactor analysis are built. The MOOSE framework also includes several systems to assemble unique workflows and couplingamong MOOSE-based applications. In particular, the MultiApp and Transfer Systems are widely used to assemble different MOOSE-based or MOOSE-wrapped physics applications together to perform loosely or tightly coupled multiphysics simulations. The National Reactor Innovation Center (NRIC) Virtual Test Bed (VTB) [3] hosts publicly available nuclear reactor multiphysics simulation examples which leverage MOOSE’s MultiApp System to meet the modeling needs of different reactor types. The flexibility and robustness of coupling provided by MOOSE permits rapid development of coupled physics models for a wide range of reactor types and events

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Advancing Nuclear Energy to Support a Net-Zero Future

Seminar for the KEPCO International Nuclear Graduate School (KINGS) in South Korea. The presentation will cover a brief introduction to INL, opportunities for advanced nuclear, and integrated energy systems.

08 HYDROGEN↗