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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

ECAR-6584 MARVEL Reactor Support Frame Analysis

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is developing a small microreactor to produce electrical power utilizing a small nuclear core and Stirling engines for power output under the Microreactor Application Research Validation and Evaluation (MARVEL) program. The MARVEL Reactor will be installed in the Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility. Walsh Engineering Services, PC (WES) has contracted with the INL to support the completion of the final design. There are six main systems in the MARVEL, one of which is the MARVEL Reactor System (MRS). The MRS contains a subsystem – the Reactor Support Frame (RSF) – that supports and orients nearly all the MRS and the RSF will be bolted to the TREAT Facility. The subject of this Engineering Calculations and Analysis Report (ECAR) is the frame weldment (see Figure 1), which is the only item that is contained in the RSF subsystem and will be called herein “RSF”.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2020

10 MWE CDCL Large Pilot Plant – pre-FEED Study (Final Report)

The Following Document is the Final Technical Scientific Report for the project tittle “10 MWE CDCL Large Pilot Plant – pre-FEED Study” performed by The Babcock & Wilcox Company in collaboration with The Ohio State University, Johnson & Matthey, The Electric Power Research Institute, and the Dover Light & Power Municipal Power Plant. The project Team performed a pre-Front End Engineering Design study of a 10 MWe Coal-Direct Chemical Looping power plant to be hosted at the Dover Light & Power Municipal Plant. As part of the pre-FEED study, the project Team performed multiple pilot test campaigns to obtain design and performance information at the 250 kWth CDCL pilot facility at the Babcock & Wilcox Company’s Research Center. The Techno-Economic analysis was updated based on the FEED study and the pilot tests results. The study shows that the CDCL process is a promising carbon-friendly technology capable of producing electricity with a high efficiency with a cost of electricity of $83.3 / MWh, which corresponded to less than 30% increase in cost of electricity compared to the cost of electricity of a base case study of a supercritical PC boiler.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2021

ECAR-6585 MARVEL Core Support Structure Analysis: Project #33526

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is developing a small microreactor to produce electrical power utilizing a small nuclear core and stirling engines for power output under the Microreactor Application Research Validation and Evaluation (MARVEL) program. The MARVEL Reactor (Figure 1) will be installed in the Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility. Walsh Engineering Services, PC (WES) has contracted with the INL to detail the final design. There are six main systems in the MARVEL, one of which is the Fuel and Core System (FCS). The FCS contains a subsystem–the Core Support Structures Subsystem (CSS)–that supports and orients each of the 36 nuclear fuel pins in the MARVEL Reactor System. The FCS (apart from the fixed Beryllium Oxide radial reflectors) is shown in light green and is depicted in more detail in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The main subject of this analysis is the lower grid plate, which is the principal item in the CSS which supports the fuel, see Figure 3. Additionally, the upper grid plate thermal expansion of the upper grid plate is presented in Appendix A.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Modeling and Experimental Demonstration of Flux Spreading in Light Trapping Planar-Cavity Solar Enclosed Particle Receivers

This study experimentally validates and numerically models the flux-spreading effect in a light-trapping planar-cavity solar receiver) for particle-based concentrating solar power systems. The receiver's shallow cavity with vertical planar walls redistributes concentrated solar flux, reducing peak intensity and achieving uniform heat flux. On-sun tests at National Renewable Energy Laboratory's High-Flux Solar Furnace under flux up to 1500 kW/m2 measured cavity wall temperatures, which were compared with Monte Carlo ray-tracing (SolTrace) and computational numerical simulations. Three angular absorptance models were evaluated: constant absorptance, a Pyromark-based directional model, and a Fresnel-based Cr2O3 model. The Fresnel-derived model showed the best agreement with experiments, achieving high correlation (PC > 0.85), structural similarity (SSIM > 0.98), and signal-to-noise ratios (PSNR > 40 dB), with temperature prediction errors of 1-11%. Results confirm that flux spreading mitigates local overheating and validate the integrated modeling approach, supporting the solar receiver scalability for high-efficiency, high-temperature concentrating solar power applications.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

An X-Band Ultra-High Gradient Photoinjector

High brightness beams appealing for XFELs and UEM essentially imply a high current and a low emittance. To obtain such beams we propose to raise the accelerating voltage in the gun mitigating repealing Coulomb forces. An ultra-high gradient is achieved utilizing a short-pulse technology. We have designed a room temperature X-band 1,5 cell gun that is able to inject 4 MeV, 100 pC bunches with as low as 0.15 mcm normalized transverse emittance. The gun is operated with as high gradients as 400 MV/m and fed by 200 MW, 10 ns RF pulses generated with Argonne Wakefield Accelerator (AWA) power extractor. We report results of low RF power tests, laser alignment test results, and successful gun conditioning results carried out at nominal RF power.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Evaluation of Steam Cycle Upgrades to Improve the Competitiveness of U.S. Coal Power Plants (Final Scientific / Technical Report)

Increasing the competitiveness of the existing pulverized-coal utility fleet in the United States may be achieved by decreasing heat rate, via increases in steam cycle efficiency through upgraded steam temperatures and use of latest technology available in steam turbine and blading design. The average net plant efficiency of the US coal-fired fleet is approximately 33% (HHV). Plant efficiency increases to approximately 41.4% (HHV) at 1,350°F (732°C) steam temperature. However, achieving these Advanced Ultra-Super Critical (AUSC) steam conditions requires the use of advanced high-temperature materials. While there has been a significant amount of DOE-funded materials R&D, most of the related design work has focused on new (greenfield) units, rather than on opportunities to retrofit this advanced technology to the existing utility fleet. If technology, based upon the advanced materials required for AUSC steam conditions, may be applied to the existing fleet, using an economically viable retrofit, a higher capacity factor can be expected as a result of the increased plant competitiveness. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) was awarded a project by the US Department of Energy to examine the technical and economic feasibility of a series of steam cycle upgrades to the two most prevalent types of U.S. coal power plants: 2,400 psig (16.6 MPa) subcritical and 3,500 psig (24.1 MPa) supercritical pulverized coal units. The nine upgrade options that were originally being considered included increasing the main and reheat steam temperatures from 1,000°F (538°C) to 1,100°, 1,200°, and 1,350°F (593°C, 649°C, and 732°C) while holding the steam pressures constant at their original design values, and cases where just the main steam or reheat steam temperatures were increased. The objective was to minimize the modifications required to the existing power plant while still providing a significant improvement in heat rate. The upgrade options assumed that the boiler enclosure envelope remained unchanged from each base case, and that all applicable OEM design guidelines for normal commercial units were imposed. For the highest temperature supercritical case, an option of using a low-pressure molten salt loop to transfer heat from the furnace to the steam was examined. The first major task of the work scope was designed to examine the technical feasibility of various upgrade options, while the subsequent work determined economic viability of the technically feasible upgrade options. Prior to evaluating the effect of these increased temperatures, a “base case” model of a subcritical and supercritical PC boiler was created, which was used for comparative purposes. Upgrade options were evaluated at full-load, part-load and dynamic transient conditions. Once the technical feasibility of each upgrade option was evaluated, the economic value of the heat rate improvement of each feasible option was determined by detailed modeling of unit dispatch in several regional power markets. The dispatch model was used to estimate the amount of revenue from power sales the upgraded unit would receive in comparison to a non-upgraded version of the same power plant. As a parallel task to the dispatch analysis, the capital cost of implementing the upgrades was estimated. The capital cost estimates were then compared to the increased revenue estimated by the dispatch modeling to determine the economic attractiveness of each upgrade option. Several upgrade options were determined to be technically feasible. The net present value (NPV) of the costs for steam cycle upgrades considered in this study ranged from approximately $\$$111 to $\$$130 million. The economic modeling results show that the unit dispatch changes resulting from steam cycle upgrades are relatively small, due largely to heat rate (and operating cost) changes being relatively small. Additionally, the cost of each upgrade exceeds the net revenue increases associated with the upgrade case. Note that the breakeven values are higher for subcritical retrofits, but the capital costs for the subcritical upgrades are also slightly higher. In typical new pulverized coal plants, fuel accounts for approximately 25% of the cost of electricity (COE), while capital costs represent around 50% of the COE. Therefore, in order to improve the heat rate by 4% one can only afford to increase the capital cost by 2%, at the same cost of electricity. The conclusion of this study is that without a cost for emitting CO 2 , it will be difficult to pay for significant efficiency improvements on plants firing low cost coals.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Bulk versus Nanoscale Hydrogen Storage Paradox Revealed by Material-System Co-Design

Metal hydrides are serious contenders for materials-based hydrogen storage to overcome constraints associated with compressed or liquefied H 2 . Their ultimate performance is usually evaluated using intrinsic material properties without considering a systems design perspective. An illustrative case with startling implications is (LiNH 2 +2LiH). Using models that simulate the storage system and associated fuel cell of a light-duty vehicle (LDV), the performance of the bulk hydrides is compared with a nanoscaled version in porous carbon (PC), (LiNH 2 +2LiH)@(6-nm PC). Using experimental material properties, the simulations show that (LiNH 2 +2LiH)@(6-nm PC) counterintuitively has higher usable gravimetric and volumetric capacities than the bulk counterpart on a system basis despite having lower capacities on a materials-only basis. Nanoscaling increases the thermal conductivity and lowers the desorption enthalpy, which consequently increases heat management efficiency. In a simulated drive cycle for fuel cell-powered LDV, the fuel cell is inoperable using bulk (LiNH 2 +2LiH) as the storage material but completes the drive cycle using the nanoscale material. Further, these results challenge the notion that nanoscaling incurs mass and volume penalties. Instead, the synergistic nanoporous host-hydride interaction can favorably modulate chemical and heat transfer properties. Moreover, a co-design approach considering application-specific tradeoffs is essential to accurately assess a material's potential for real-world hydrogen storage.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Conceptual Design of Pulverized Coal Electricity Generating Units for Flexible Operation

This National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) study addresses the conceptual design of greenfield pulverized coal (PC) plants intended for flexible rather than high capacity factor baseload operation. The United States has plentiful, low-cost natural gas resources - studies of aggressive decarbonization scenarios of the US energy sector suggest that the variability of carbon-free power can be economically addressed using dispatchable natural gas-fueled generation. Globally, natural gas resources are not as plentiful or low cost; consequently, some regions of the world are anticipated to continue to rely upon coal generation, even as they pursue decarbonization efforts. To support the increased utilization of variable renewable generation in these coal-dependent regions, plant designs must target low-capacity factor coal plants with increased emphasis on flexibility attributes such as start-up times, ramp rates, minimum load, and part-load heat rates. While much work has been performed on the improvement of the flexibility for existing coal plants originally designed for baseload service, little public literature exists on clean sheet design for flexible operation. This conceptual design study aims to define the features, performance characteristics, and costs for greenfield coal plants intended for flexible operation. Quantifying these characteristics provides critical information required by utility owners, grid planners, energy market modelers, and energy policy decision makers in coal-dependent regions of the world to better understand how coal-fired power plants can support a transition to low carbon generation.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Boiler Health Monitoring Using a Hybrid First Principles-Artificial Intelligence Model

Due to increased penetration of the intermittent renewables to the grid, pulverized coal (PC) plants are being forced to cycle their load frequently and rapidly, operate at low load condition for sustained period, and start up and shut down several hundred times in a year in the worst case. These severe operations are causing substantial damage to the boiler components compromising the reliability of PC plants. An online health monitoring tool can be instrumental in understanding the impacts of load-following and can eventually help PC plants to develop advanced process control strategies for improved flexibility without compromising safety nor reliability.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electron pulse train accelerated by a linearly polarized Laguerre–Gaussian laser beam

A linearly polarized Laguerre–Gaussian (LP-LG) laser beam with a twist index $l$ = –1 has field structure that fundamentally differs from the field structure of a conventional linearly polarized Gaussian beam. Close to the axis of the LP-LG beam, the longitudinal electric and magnetic fields dominate over the transverse components. This structure offers an attractive opportunity to accelerate electrons in vacuum. It is shown, using three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations, that this scenario can be realized by reflecting an LP-LG laser off a plasma with a sharp density gradient. The simulations indicate that a 600 TW LP-LG laser beam effectively injects electrons into the beam during the reflection. The electrons that are injected close to the laser axis experience a prolonged longitudinal acceleration by the longitudinal laser electric field. The electrons form distinct monoenergetic bunches with a small divergence angle. The energy in the most energetic bunch is 0.29 GeV. The bunch charge is 6 pC and its duration is approximately 270 as. The divergence angle is just 0.57° (10 mrad). By using a linearly polarized rather than a circularly polarized Laguerre–Gaussian beam, our scheme makes it easier to demonstrate the electron acceleration experimentally at a high-power laser facility.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2022

High performance high-power textured Mn/Cu-doped PIN-PMN-PT ceramics

Piezoelectric ceramics with combinatory soft and hard characteristics are highly desired for high-power applications. However, it remains grand challenge to achieve simultaneous presence of hard (e.g. high coercive field, E c ; high mechanical quality factor, Q m ) and soft (e.g. high piezoelectric constant, d; high electromechanical coupling factor, k) piezoelectric properties in piezoelectric ceramics since the mechanism controlling the hard behavior (pinned domain walls) will significantly reduce the soft behavior. Here, we address this grand challenge and demonstrate <001> textured MnO 2 and CuO co-doped Pb(In 1/2 Nb 1/2 )O 3- Pb(Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3- PbTiO 3 (PIN-PMN-PT) ceramics exhibiting ultrahigh combined soft and hard piezoelectric properties (d 33 = 713 pC N –1 , k 31 = 0.52, Q m ≈950, E c = 9.6 kV cm –1 , tan δ = 0.45%). The outstanding electromechanical properties are explained by considering composition/phase selection, crystallographic anisotropy and defect engineering. Phase-field model in conjunction with high resolution electron microscopy and diffraction techniques is utilized to delineate the contributions arising from intrinsic piezoelectric response, domain dynamics, and local structural heterogeneity. Furthermore, these results will have significant impact in the development of high-power transducers and actuators.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Cations Control Lipid Bilayer Memcapacitance Associated with Long-Term Potentiation

Phospholipid bilayers can be described as capacitors whose capacitance per unit area (specific capacitance, C m ) is determined by their thickness and dielectric constant–independent of applied voltage. It is also widely assumed that the C m of membranes can be treated as a “biological constant”. Recently, using droplet interface bilayers (DIBs), it was shown that zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipid bilayers can act as voltage-dependent, nonlinear memory capacitors, or memcapacitors. When exposed to an electrical “training” stimulation protocol, capacitive energy storage in lipid membranes was enhanced in the form of long-term potentiation (LTP), which enables biological learning and long-term memory. LTP was the result of membrane restructuring and the progressive asymmetric distribution of ions across the lipid bilayer during training, which is analogous, for example, to exponential capacitive energy harvesting from self-powered nanogenerators. Here, we describe how LTP could be produced from a membrane that is continuously pumped into a nonequilibrium steady state, altering its dielectric properties. During this time, the membrane undergoes static and dynamic changes that are fed back to the system’s potential energy, ultimately resulting in a membrane whose modified molecular structure supports long-term memory storage and LTP. Here, we also show that LTP is very sensitive to different salts (KCl, NaCl, LiCl, and TmCl 3 ), with LiCl and TmCl 3 having the most profound effect in depressing LTP, relative to KCl. This effect is related to how the different cations interact with the bilayer zwitterionic PC lipid headgroups primarily through electric-field-induced changes to the statistically averaged orientations of water dipoles at the bilayer headgroup interface.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Synthesis and Characterization of a New Ferroelectric with Low Lead Content, a High Curie Temperature, and a High Piezoelectric Response

Abstract A new solid solution (1− x )Bi(Fe 2/8 Ti 3/8 Mg 3/8 )O 3 –( x )PbTiO 3 (BFTM‐PT) is synthesized and the electromechanical properties are measured. This system is defined as a low‐lead material with ferroelectric/piezoelectric behavior and a morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) that leads to enhanced properties. The MPB is located between x = 0.30 and 0.35 and coincides with a structural phase transition and a sharp increase in the piezoelectric response. The system demonstrates ferroelectric hysteresis where x = 0.325 displays the best properties with a maximum polarization of 39 µC cm −2 and a remnant polarization of 26 µC cm −2 . The range of compositions has high Curie temperature ( T c ), ranging from 625–650 °C. Materials with a T c above 400 °C typically have a low d 33 of <50 pC N −1 at room temperature. However, BFTM‐PT has a higher d 33 that most other compositions with a T c in this range, with the highest being 145 pC N −1 for x = 0.375. The d 33 drops off above 100 °C, but doping studies can be done in the future to stabilize the piezoelectric response at higher temperatures. These outstanding properties open the possibility of new transducer applications, in particular ones requiring high temperature and high power.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Effect of Power Plant Capacity on the CAPEX, OPEX, and LCOC of the CO2 Capture Process in Pre-Combustion Applications - Abstract

Aspen Plus v8.8 was used to simulate the pre-combustion CO2 capture process from a typical fuel gas stream at different power plant capacities ranging from 54.3 to 543 MW. Polyethylene glycol polydimethyl siloxane (PEGPDMS-1) was used as a physical solvent to capture CO2 in a countercurrent packed-bed absorber containing a structured packing (Mellapak 250Y). The process pressure was 51.4 bar and the solvent temperature was varied from 10 to 40 <sup>o</sup>C. The internal diameter of the absorber ranged from 1.9 to 7 m and the packing height from 13.9 to 45.5 m. The physico-chemical properties were obtained and modeled using the Perturbed Chain-Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (PC-SAFT) Equation-of-State (EOS).<p> Four process constraints were imposed in Aspen Plus: (1) no flooding in the absorber, (2) the absorber height to diameter ratio (H/D) is greater than or equal 6, (3) at least 90 mol% of the CO2 capture from the fuel gas stream, and (4) the CO2 stream destined to sequestration sites should contain less than 600 ppm water concentration and less than or equal 0.5 mol% of fuel gases (H2, CO, CH4). The plant lifetime was assumed to be 30 years with an annual discount rate of 10% and an annual maintenance cost of 4% of the total capital expenses.</p><p> Seven power plants with different capacities were used and for each plant, the corresponding CO2 capture process was simulated. The absorber flooding was checked using the generalized pressure drop correlation (GPDC) by Leva [1] and the capital expenditure (CAPEX), operating expenditure (OPEX), and levelized costs per ton of CO2 captured (LCOC) were calculated [2-5]. Normalized by the largest power plant capacity (543 MW) used in the simulation, the results indicated that the capital and operating expenditures increased, however, the LCOC decreased with increasing plant capacity. This behavior was due to the increased annual tonnage of the CO2 captured with plant capacity as shown in Figure 1. The calculated CAPEX, OPEX, LCOC and the tonnage of CO2 captured for the 543 MW power plant were about 52 MM$, 22 MM$/year, 7.46 $/ton and 4 MM ton/year.</p>

Ashkanani, Husain↗
DOE OSTI2023

Physics-Informed Deep Learning-Based Proof-of-Concept Study of a Novel Elastohydrodynamic Seal for Supercritical CO 2 Turbomachinery

Supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO 2 ) power cycles show promising potential of higher plant efficiencies and power densities for a wide range of power generation applications such as fossil fuel power plants, nuclear power production, solar power, and geothermal power generation. sCO 2 leakage through the turbomachinery has been one of the main concerns in such applications. To offer a potential solution, we propose an elastohydrodynamic (EHD) seal that can work at elevated pressures and temperatures with low leakage and minimal wear. The EHD seal has a very simple, sleeve-like structure, wrapping on the rotor with minimal initial clearance at micron levels. Here, in this work, a proof-of-concept study for the proposed EHD seal was presented by using the simplified Reynolds equation and Lame’s formula for the fluid flow in the clearance and for seal deformation, respectively. The set of nonlinear equations was solved by using both the conventional Prediction–Correction (PC) method and modern Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN). It was shown that the physics-informed deep learning method provided good computational efficiency in resolving the steep pressure gradient in the clearance with good accuracy. The results showed that the leakage rates increased quadratically with working pressures and reached a steady-state at high-pressure values of 15~20 MPa, where Q = 300 g/s at 20 MPa for an initial seal clearance of 255 μm. This indicates that the EHD seal could be tailored to become a potential solution to minimize the sCO 2 discharge in power plants.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Cold Gas and Star Formation in the Phoenix Cluster with JWST

We present integral field unit observations of the Phoenix Cluster with the JWST Mid-infrared Instrument’s Medium Resolution Spectrometer. We focus this study on the molecular gas, dust, and star formation in the brightest cluster galaxy (BCG). We use precise spectral modeling to produce maps of the silicate dust, molecular gas, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the inner ∼50 kpc of the cluster. We measure the optical depth from silicates by comparing the observed H 2 line ratios to those predicted by excitation models. We provide updated measurements of the total molecular gas mass of $1.9^{+0.5}_{-0.04}$ x 10 10 M ⊙ , which agrees with CO-based estimates, providing an estimate of the CO-to-H 2 conversion factor of α CO = 0.8 ± 0.2 M ⊙ pc -2 (K km s -1 ) -1 ; an updated stellar mass of M * = 2.6 ± 0.5 × 10 10 M ⊙ ; and star formation rates (SFRs) averaged over 10 and 100 Myr of $\langle$SFR$\rangle$ 10 = 1340 ± 100 M ⊙ yr −1 and $\langle$SFR$\rangle$ 100 = 740 ± 80 M ⊙ yr −1 , respectively. The H 2 emission seems to be powered predominantly by shocks and star formation within the central ∼20 kpc, induced by stellar feedback and radio jets from the active galactic nucleus. Additionally, we find nearly an order-of-magnitude drop in the SFRs estimated by PAH fluxes in cool core BCGs compared to field galaxies, suggesting that hot particles from the intracluster medium are destroying PAH grains even in the central-most tens of kiloparsecs.

Active galaxies↗
DOE OSTI2023

Incorporating Potassium Citrate to Improve the Performance of Tin‐Lead Perovskite Solar Cells

Abstract Easy‐to‐form tin vacancies at the buried interface of tin‐lead perovskites hinder the performance of low‐bandgap perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Here, a synergistic strategy by incorporating potassium citrate (PC) into the poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hole‐transport layer to passivate the buried interface of Sn‐Pb PSCs is reported. PC neutralizes the acidity of PEDOT:PSS and stabilizes the perovskite front surface, enhancing device stability. Citrate moieties coordinate with Sn 2+ on the buried perovskite surface, preventing Sn 2+ oxidation and suppressing defect formation. Additionally, potassium cations incorporate into Sn‐Pb perovskites, enhancing crystallinity and passivating halide defects. The combined benefits enable efficient low‐bandgap Sn‐Pb PSCs with a power conversion efficiency of 22.7% and a high open‐circuit voltage of 0.894 V. Using this method, 26.1% efficiency for all‐perovskite tandem solar cells is demonstrated. These results emphasize the significance of buried interface passivation in developing efficient and stable Sn‐Pb PSCs and all‐perovskite tandem solar cells.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗