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NASA NTRS2014

Real-Time Global Flood Estimation Using Satellite-Based Precipitation and a Coupled Land Surface and Routing Model

A widely used land surface model, the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model, is coupled with a newly developed hierarchical dominant river tracing-based runoff-routing model to form the Dominant river tracing-Routing Integrated with VIC Environment (DRIVE) model, which serves as the new core of the real-time Global Flood Monitoring System (GFMS). The GFMS uses real-time satellite-based precipitation to derive flood monitoring parameters for the latitude band 50 deg. N - 50 deg. S at relatively high spatial (approximately 12 km) and temporal (3 hourly) resolution. Examples of model results for recent flood events are computed using the real-time GFMS (http://flood.umd.edu). To evaluate the accuracy of the new GFMS, the DRIVE model is run retrospectively for 15 years using both research-quality and real-time satellite precipitation products. Evaluation results are slightly better for the research-quality input and significantly better for longer duration events (3 day events versus 1 day events). Basins with fewer dams tend to provide lower false alarm ratios. For events longer than three days in areas with few dams, the probability of detection is approximately 0.9 and the false alarm ratio is approximately 0.6. In general, these statistical results are better than those of the previous system. Streamflow was evaluated at 1121 river gauges across the quasi-global domain. Validation using real-time precipitation across the tropics (30 deg. S - 30 deg. N) gives positive daily Nash-Sutcliffe Coefficients for 107 out of 375 (28%) stations with a mean of 0.19 and 51% of the same gauges at monthly scale with a mean of 0.33. There were poorer results in higher latitudes, probably due to larger errors in the satellite precipitation input.

global flood estimation↗

NASA NTRS2015

Propulsion System Development for the Iodine Satellite (iSAT) Demonstration Mission

The development and testing of a 200-W iodine-fed Hall thruster propulsion system that will be flown on a 12-U CubeSat is described. The switch in propellant from more traditional xenon gas to solid iodine yields the advantage of high density, low pressure propellant storage but introduces new requirements that must be addressed in the design and operation of the propulsion system. The thruster materials have been modified from a previously-flown xenon Hall thruster to make it compatible with iodine vapor. The cathode incorporated into this design additionally requires little or no heating to initiate the discharge, reducing the power needed to start the thruster. The feed system produces iodine vapor in the propellant reservoir through sublimation and then controls the flow to the anode and cathode of the thruster using a pair of proportional flow control valves. The propellant feeding process is controlled by the power processing unit, with feedback control on the anode flow rate provided through a measure of the thruster discharge current. Thermal modeling indicates that it may be difficult to sufficiently heat the iodine if it loses contact with the propellant reservoir walls, serving to motivate future testing of that scenario to verify the modeling result and develop potential mitigation strategies. Preliminary, short-duration materials testing has thus-far indicated that several materials may be acceptable for prolonged contact with iodine vapor, motivating longer-duration testing. A propellant loading procedure is presented that aims to minimize the contaminants in the feed system and propellant reservoir. Finally, an 80-hour duration test being performed to gain experience operating the thruster over long durations and multiple restarts is discussed.

Polzin, Kurt A.↗

NASA NTRS2016

NASA Advanced Exploration Systems: Advancements in Life Support Systems

Shull, Sarah A.↗

NASA NTRS2017

NASA Advanced Explorations Systems: 2017 Advancements in Life Support Systems

The NASA Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Life Support Systems (LSS) project strives to develop reliable, energy-efficient, and low-mass spacecraft systems to provide environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) critical to enabling long duration human missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). Highly reliable, closed-loop life support systems are among the capabilities required for the longer duration human space exploration missions planned in the mid-2020s and beyond. The LSS Project is focused on four are-as-architecture and systems engineering for life support systems, environmental monitoring, air revitalization, and wastewater processing and water management. Starting with the International Space Station (ISS) LSS systems as a point of departure where applicable, the three-fold mission of the LSS Project is to address discrete LSS technology gaps, to improve the reliability of LSS systems, and to advance LSS systems toward integrated testing aboard the ISS. This paper is a follow on to the AES LSS development status reported in 2016 and provides additional details on the progress made since that paper was published with specific attention to the status of the Aerosol Sampler ISS Flight Experiment, the Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor (SAM) Flight Experiment, the Brine Processor Assembly (BPA) Flight Experiment, the CO2 removal technology development tasks, and the work investigating the impacts of dormancy on LSS systems.

Schneider, Walter F.↗

NASA NTRS2018

NASA Advanced Explorations Systems: 2018 Advancements in Life Support Systems

The NASA Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Life Support Systems (LSS) project strives to develop reliable, energy-efficient, and low-mass spacecraft systems to provide envi-ronmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) critical to enabling long duration human missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). Highly reliable, closed-loop life support systems are among the capabilities required for the longer duration human space exploration missions planned in the mid-2020s and beyond. The LSS Project is focused on three life support areas: air revitalization, wastewater processing/water management and environmental monitoring. Building upon the International Space Station (ISS) LSS systems (where applicable), the three-fold mission of the LSS Project is to address discrete LSS technology gaps, to improve the reliability of LSS systems, and to advance LSS systems toward integrated testing aboard the ISS. This paper is a follow on to the AES LSS development status reported in 2017 and provides additional details on the progress made since that publication with specific attention to the status of the Aerosol Sampler ISS Flight Experiment, the Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor (SAM) Flight Experiment, the Brine Processor Assembly (BPA) Flight Experiment as well as the progress of the terrestrial development in air, water and environmental monitoring technologies.

trace contaminant control↗

DOE OSTI2025

Using time reversal with long duration broadband noise signals to achieve high amplitude and a desired spectrum at a target location

Time Reversal (TR) is a signal processing technique that can be used to focus acoustic waves to a specific location in space, with most applications aiming to create an impulsive focus. Here, this study instead aims to focus long-duration noise signals using TR. This paper seeks to generate higher amplitude noise at a desired location over an existing method of broadcasting equalized noise. Additionally, this paper explores various characteristics associated with focusing long duration noise using TR. The dependence of the focal amplitude on the duration of the focused signal is explored as well as the implications of using multiple sources when focusing noise. The focal amplitude decreases with longer duration and then levels off when the duration exceeds a few seconds. Coherent addition of focused noise is observed if all loudspeakers have coherent noise signals convolved with their reversed impulse responses. Lastly, focusing noise with a desired spectrum is explored.

42 ENGINEERING↗

NASA NTRS2014

2013 Immune Risk Standing Review Panel Research Plan Review for: The Risk of Crew Adverse Health Event Due to Altered Immune Response

The 2013 Immune Risk Standing Review Panel (from here on referred to as the SRP) participated in a meeting with representatives from the Human Research Program (HRP) Human Health Countermeasures (HHC) Element and HRP management on February 3-4, 2014 in Houston, TX to review the updated Research Plan for the Risk of Crew Adverse Health Event Due to Altered Immune Response in the HRP Integrated Research Plan. The SRP is impressed with the work the immune discipline has done since the 2012 SRP review and agrees with the new wording of the Gaps, no longer questions, now statements. The SRP also likes the addition of adding targets for closing the Gaps, but it is not clear how they got to some of the interim stages (interval percentages). A major concern that the SRP has mentioned since the initial 2009 SRP meeting is that there is still not enough emphasis on the interdisciplinary aspect of the immune risk associated with other risks (i.e., nutrition, radiation, etc.). The SRP recommends that a "translational SRP" or advisory group be developed that is composed of members from all of the HRP SRPs. The SRP also thinks that the immune discipline should consider a more systems biology approach. Lastly, the SRP is concerned that the risks observed in research from low Earth orbit (LEO) missions may not accurately reflect all the risks of longer duration flight beyond LEO. Also, there does not seem to be a concern for immune responses that may occur when someone is in space longer than six months, for example, a Mars mission would take three years. The absence of disease in past and current flight scenarios does not mean the risk may not be there in future flight settings.

Steinberg, Susan↗

NASA NTRS2022

Changes in Optic Nerve Head and Retinal Morphology During Spaceflight and Acute Fluid Shift Reversal

Importance: Countermeasures that reverse the headward fluid shift experienced in weightlessness have the potential to mitigate spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome. This study investigated whether use of the countermeasure lower-body negative pressure during spaceflight was associated with changes in ocular structure. Objective: To determine whether changes to the optic nerve head and retina during spaceflight can be mitigated by brief in-flight application of 25-mm Hg lower-body negative pressure. Design, Setting, and Participants: In the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s “Fluid Shifts Study,” a prospective cohort study, optical coherence tomography scans of the optic nerve head and macula were obtained from US and international crew members before flight, in-flight, and up to 180 days after return to Earth. In-flight scans were obtained both under normal weightless conditions and 10 to 20 minutes into lower-body negative pressure exposure. Preflight and postflight data were collected in the seated, supine, and head-down tilt postures. Crew members completed 6- to 12-month missions that took place on the International Space Station. Data were analyzed from 2016 to 2021. Interventions or Exposures: Spaceflight and lower-body negative pressure. Main Outcomes and Measures: Changes in minimum rim width, optic cup volume, Bruch membrane opening height, peripapillary total retinal thickness, and macular thickness. Results: Mean (SD) flight duration for the 14 crew members (mean [SD] age, 45 [6] years; 11 male crew members [79%]) was 214 (72) days. Ocular changes on flight day 150, as compared with preflight seated, included an increase in minimum rim width (33.8 μm; 95% CI, 27.9-39.7 μm; P < .001), decrease in cup volume (0.038 mm^3; 95% CI, 0.030-0.046 mm^3; P < .001), posterior displacement of Bruch membrane opening (−9.0 μm; 95% CI, −15.7 to −2.2 μm; P = .009), and decrease in macular thickness (fovea to 500 μm, 5.1 μm; 95% CI, 3.5-6.8 μm; P < .001). Brief exposure to lower-body negative pressure did not affect these parameters. Conclusions and Relevance: Results of this cohort study suggest that peripapillary tissue thickening, decreased cup volume, and mild central macular thinning were associated with long-duration spaceflight. Acute exposure to 25-mm Hg lower-body negative pressure did not alter optic nerve head or retinal morphology, suggesting that longer durations of a fluid shift reversal may be needed to mitigate spaceflight-induced changes and/or other factors are involved.

Laura P. Pardon↗

NASA NTRS1984

Effect of external viscous load on head movement

Quantitative measurements of horizontal head rotation were obtained from normal human subjects intending to make 'time optimal' trajectories between targets. By mounting large, lightweight vanes on the head, viscous damping B, up to 15 times normal could be added to the usual mechanical load of the head. With the added viscosity, the head trajectory was slowed and of larger duration (as expected) since fixed and maximal (for that amplitude) muscle forces had to accelerate the added viscous load. This decreased acceleration and velocity and longer duration movement still ensued in spite of adaptive compensation; this provided evidence that quasi-'time optimal' movements do indeed employ maximal muscle forces. The adaptation to this added load was rapid. Then the 'adapted state' subjects produced changed trajectories. The adaptation depended in part on the differing detailed instructions given to the subjects. This differential adaptation provided evidence for the existence of preprogrammed controller signals, sensitive to intended criterion, and neurologically ballistic or open loop rather than modified by feedback from proprioceptors or vision.

Nam, M.-H.↗

NASA NTRS2010

A Microwave Radiance Assimilation Study for a Tundra Snowpack

Recent studies have begun exploring the assimilation of microwave radiances for the modeling and retrieval of snow properties. At a point scale, and for short durations (i week), radiance assimilation (RA) results are encouraging. However, in order to determine how practical RA might be for snow retrievals when applied over longer durations, larger spatial scales, and/or different snow types, we must expand the scope of the tests. In this paper we use coincident microwave radiance measurements and station data from a tundra site on the North Slope of Alaska. The field data are from the 3rd Radio-brightness Energy Balance Experiment (REBEX-3) carried out in 1994-95 by the University of Michigan. This dataset will provide a test of RA over months instead of one week, and for a very different type of snow than previous snow RA studies. We will address the following questions: flow well can a snowpack physical model (SM), forced with local weather, match measured conditions for a tundra snowpack?; How well can a microwave emission model, driven by the snowpack model, match measured microwave brightnesses for a tundra snowpack?; How well does RA increase or decrease the fidelity of estimates of snow depth and temperatures for a tundra snowpack?

Kim, Edward↗

NASA NTRS2022

Evidence Report: Risk of Injury and Compromised Performance due to EVA Operations

During future missions to the Moon and Mars, each crewmember will most likely perform up to 24 hours a week of extravehicular activity (EVA) in support of exploration, science, construction, and maintenance tasks. Achieving mission objectives will require EVA systems and operations concepts that maximize human performance and efficiency while minimizing health and safety risks for crewmembers. Currently, over 450 EVAs have been performed in microgravity using the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU). The EMU space suit has enabled the successful assembly and maintenance of the International Space Station (ISS) for over 20 years, as well as deployment of payload experiments, solar arrays, satellite launches and repairs. This EVA work was accomplished at a slower cadence than is expected for Moon and Mars, with ISS crewmembers performing no more than 7 EVAs during a single mission and without any back-to-back EVAs. Despite their success, ISS EVAs have resulted in more injury to EVA crewmembers than may be acceptable for long-duration exploration missions. The Apollo astronauts completed EVA tasks in suits that were designed for their short-duration lunar missions, although suit mobility problems were evident. The more frequent EVAs and more varied EVA tasks that are anticipated during the future longer-duration exploration missions will require EVA suits and systems that are better oriented to human health and performance than those used during the Apollo Program. Many of the problems that were encountered with the Apollo EVA suits (e.g., limited mobility and dexterity, high and aft center of gravity, and other features requiring significant crew compensation) will need to be corrected or mitigated to optimize EVA objectives of exploration missions. It is critical that we understand how EVA system design variables such as suit pressure, weight/mass, center-of-gravity location, joint ranges of motion, and biomedical monitoring, affects the ability of astronauts to perform safe, efficient, and effective EVAs. To achieve this understanding, EVA researchers will need to develop and execute an integrated human testing program across multiple environments. The research will provide objective data that will enable informed design decisions and crewmember standards, thereby ensuring EVA systems that optimize crewmember health, safety, efficiency, and performance. This report describes the risks to crew health, safety, performance, and efficiency caused by EVA operations, and it provides the evidence base to substantiate the importance of the risk.

EVA↗

DOE OSTI2026

Hybrid combustion modeling approach for turbulent jet ignition in natural-gas pre-chamber spark-ignition engines at high EGR

Here, this study presented a hybrid modeling approach for simulating turbulent jet ignition and combustion processes in a natural-gas pre-chamber spark-ignition engine operating under exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) diluted conditions. In-depth analyses of experimental data and simulation results from previous work [Chinnathambi et al., ICEF2021-67836; Kim et al., Fuel 409: 137815, 2026] revealed two key findings: (i) the magnitude of pressure difference between the pre-chamber and main chamber ($∆P_{PC-MC}$) was positively correlated with the combustion duration from the moment of $∆P_{PC-MC}=0$ to the point of 5% mass fraction burned, with larger $∆P_{PC-MC}$ associated with longer duration; and (ii) the turbulent combustion regime in the main chamber transitioned from the broken reaction zone to the corrugated flamelet regime, with the Karlovitz number exceeding 100 immediately after turbulent hot jets were ejected from nozzles, coinciding with observed local extinction events. To accurately simulate the entire combustion process, a hybrid approach was developed under Reynolds-Averaged Navier Stokes framework, combining the G-equation model for pre-chamber combustion with the multi-zone well-stirred reactor approach and a turbulence-chemistry interaction (TCI) submodel for main chamber combustion. The TCI submodel accounted for the attenuation of reaction rates due to turbulent strain and modeled local extinction by suppressing reaction rates under certain flow and flame conditions. When applied to three EGR rate conditions toward the dilution limit, the hybrid modeling approach accurately reproduced experimental data in terms of cylinder pressure, apparent heat release rate, and the observed positive correlation, including the delayed onset of main chamber combustion—a feature not captured by existing combustion models.

computational fluid dynamics simulation↗

NASA NTRS2007

Development of a Rapid Cycling CO(sub 2) and H(sub 2)O Removal Sorbent

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) planned future missions set stringent demands on the design of the Portable Life Support System (PLSS), requiring dramatic reductions in weight, decreased reliance on supplies and greater flexibility on the types of missions. Use of regenerable systems that reduce weight and volume of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) is of critical importance to NASA, both for low orbit operations and for long duration manned missions. The carbon dioxide and humidity control unit in the existing PLSS design is relatively large, since it has to remove and store 8 hours worth of CO2. If the sorbent regeneration can be carried out during the extravehicular activity (EVA) with a relatively high regeneration frequency, the size of the sorbent canister and weight can be significantly reduced. The progress of regenerable CO2 and humidity control is leading us towards the use of a rapid cycling amine system. TDA Research, Inc. is developing compact, regenerable sorbent materials to control CO2 and humidity in the space suit ventilation loop. The sorbent can be regenerated using space vacuum during the EVA, eliminating all carbon dioxide and humidity duration-limiting elements in the life support system. The material also has applications in other areas of space exploration such as the Orion spacecraft and other longer duration exploration missions requiring regenerable technologies. This paper summarizes the results of the sorbent development, testing, and evaluation efforts to date. The results of a preliminary system analysis are also included, showing the size and volume reductions for PLSS provided by the new system.

Paul, Heather↗

NASA NTRS2006

The Flostation - an Immersive Cyberspace System

A flostation is a computer-controlled apparatus that, along with one or more computer(s) and other computer-controlled equipment, is part of an immersive cyberspace system. The system is said to be immersive in two senses of the word: (1) It supports the body in a modified form neutral posture experienced in zero gravity and (2) it is equipped with computer-controlled display equipment that helps to give the occupant of the chair a feeling of immersion in an environment that the system is designed to simulate. Neutral immersion was conceived during the Gemini program as a means of training astronauts for working in a zerogravity environment. Current derivatives include neutral-buoyancy tanks and the KC-135 airplane, each of which mimics the effects of zero gravity. While these have performed well in simulating the shorter-duration flights typical of the space program to date, a training device that can take astronauts to the next level will be needed for simulating longer-duration flights such as that of the International Space Station. The flostation is expected to satisfy this need. The flostation could also be adapted and replicated for use in commercial ventures ranging from home entertainment to medical treatment. The use of neutral immersion in the flostation enables the occupant to recline in an optimal posture of rest and meditation. This posture, combines savasana (known to practitioners of yoga) and a modified form of the neutral posture assumed by astronauts in outer space. As the occupant relaxes, awareness of the physical body is reduced. The neutral body posture, which can be maintained for hours without discomfort, is extended to the eyes, ears, and hands. The occupant can be surrounded with a full-field-of-view visual display and nearphone sound, and can be stimulated with full-body vibration and motion cueing. Once fully immersed, the occupant can use neutral hand controllers (that is, hand-posture sensors) to control various aspects of the simulated environment.

Park, Brian↗

NASA NTRS1999

Alterations in Cardiovascular Regulation and Function During Long-Term Simulated Microgravity

The Cardiovascular Alterations Team is conducting studies of hemodynamic regulation and susceptibility to arrhythmias resulting from sixteen days of simulated microgravity exposure. In these studies very intensive measurements are made during a short duration of bed rest. In this collaborative effort are making many of the same measurements, however much less frequently, on subjects who are exposed to a much longer duration of simulated microgravity. Alterations in cardiovascular regulation and function that occur during and after space flight have been reported. These alterations are manifested, for example, by reduced orthostatic tolerance upon reentry to the earth's gravity from space. However, the precise physiologic mechanisms responsible for these alterations remain to be fully elucidated. Perhaps, as a result, effective countermeasures have yet to be developed. In addition, numerous reports from the past 30 years suggest that the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias among astronauts is increased during space flight. However, the effects of space flight and the associated physiologic stresses on cardiac conduction processes are not known, and an increase in cardiac susceptibility to arrhythmias has never been quantified. In this project we are applying the most powerful technologies available to determine, in a ground-based study of long duration space flight, the mechanisms by which space flight affects cardiovascular function, and then on the basis of an understanding of these mechanisms to develop rational and specific countermeasures. To this end we are conducting a collaborative project with the Bone Demineralization/Calcium Metabolism Team of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). The Bone Team is conducting bed rest studies in human subjects lasting 17 weeks, which provides a unique opportunity to study the effects of long duration microgravity exposure on the human cardiovascular system. We are applying a number of powerful new methods to these long term bed rest subjects, including cardiovascular system identification (CSI), microvolt level T wave alternans analysis, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging to assess non-invasively the effects of simulated long duration space flight on the cardiovascular system.

Cohen, Richard J.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Risk of Adverse Cognitive or Behavioral Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders

The NASA commitment to human space flight includes continuing to fly astronauts on the ISS until it is decommissioned as well as possibly returning astronauts to the moon or having astronauts venture to an asteroid or Mars. As missions leave low Earth orbit and explore deeper space, BHP supports and conducts research to enable a risk posture that considers the risk of adverse cognitive or behavioral conditions and psychiatric disorders “acceptable given mitigations,” for pre-, in, and post-flight.The Human System Risk Board (HSRB) determines the risk of various mission scenarios using a likelihood (per person per year) by consequences matrix examining those risks across two categories—long term health and operational (within mission). Colors from a stoplight signal are used by HSRB and quickly provide a means of assessing overall perceived risk for a particular mission scenario. Risk associated with the current six month missions on the ISS are classified as “accepted with monitoring” while planetary missions, such as a mission to Mars, are recognized to be a “red” risk that requires mitigation to ensure mission success.Currently, the HSRB deems that the risk of adverse cognitive or behavioral conditions and psychiatric outcomes requires mitigation for planetary missions owing to long duration isolation and radiation exposure (see Table 1). While limited research evidence exists from spaceflight, it is well known anecdotally that the shift from the two week shuttle missions to the six month ISS missions renders the psychological stressors of space as more salient over longer duration missions. Shuttle astronauts were expected just to tolerate any stressors that arose during their mission and were successful at doing so (Whitmire et al, 2013). While it is possible to deal with stressors such as social isolation and to live with incompatible crewmembers for two weeks on shuttle, “ignoring it” is much less likely to be a successful coping mechanism on station. For the longer missions of the ISS, astronauts require a larger, more robust set of coping skills and more psychological support. Evidence of this are the number of BHP’s Operational Psychology (Op Psy) staff who have been awarded silver Snoopys by long duration astronauts†, in the statements of praise for the Op Psy and Family Support Office teams, and in the written and oral statements from flown astronauts regarding difficulty of longer missions and how much Op Psy helped.

Slack, Kelley J.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Matrix dominated stress/strain behavior in polymeric composites: Effects of hold time, nonlinearity and rate dependency

In order to understand matrix dominated behavior in laminated polymer matrix composites, an elastic/viscoplastic constitutive model was developed and used to predict stress strain behavior of off-axis and angle-ply symmetric laminates under in-plane, tensile axial loading. The model was validated for short duration tests at elevated temperatures. Short term stress relaxation and short term creep, strain rate sensitivity, and material nonlinearity were accounted for. The testing times were extended for longer durations, and periods of creep and stress relaxation were used to investigate the ability of the model to account for long term behavior. The model generally underestimated the total change in strain and stress for both long term creep and long term relaxation respectively.

Gates, Thomas S.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Bioregenerative Life Support for Humans in Space

To date, human life support in space has been achieved through physico-chemical methods along with stowage and resupply. But biological approaches could be used as well, such as growing plants (crops) to produce oxygen and food, while removing carbon dioxide generated by the humans. The plants and their associated microbiome could also be used to help recycle wastewater. These so-called bioregenerative approaches for human life support become more favorable as mission durations and distances increase. For example, a baseline mission to Mars would require about 3 years, including transit time to and from Mars, and living on the surface. For these and longer durations missions, life support approaches will need to be highly closed and sustainable, with minimal mass and power requirements. Based on testing by NASA and other space agencies around the world, about 20-25 m2 of crops could provide the oxygen needs for one human, while about 50 m2 of crops could provide the food(dietary calories) for one person. But this is dependent on lighting provided to the crops and optimizing the agricultural practices. In many ways, these goals for space agriculture have similar challenges to sustainable agriculture and living on Earth. The talk will review some of NASA’s research on biological life support and its potential for future space exploration.

Life Support↗