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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Trace elements and their isotopes in streams and rivers

The occurrence and speciation of trace elements in streams and rivers are controlled by interconnected hydrogeological, biogeochemical, and anthropogenic factors that include rock weathering, climate, vegetation, and land use within the watershed. This chapter provides a broad overview of trace element abundance, speciation, and mobility in streams and rivers, including an assessment of how trace elements are partitioned into dissolved, colloidal, and particulate phases. We also discuss how trace elements are mobilized into stream networks and transformed during transport. Select isotopic systems are reviewed to provide examples of how isotopic analyses can be used to understand geochemical and anthropogenic processes.

Herndon, Elizabeth [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000291945493)↗
DOE OSTI2023

Estimation of hydraulic conductivity in a watershed using sparse multi-source data via Gaussian process regression and Bayesian experimental design

Enhanced water management systems depend on accurate estimation of subsurface hydraulic properties. However, geologic formations can vary significantly, so information from a single source (e.g., widely spaced boreholes) is insufficient in characterizing subsurface aquifer properties. Therefore, multiple sources of information are needed to complement the hydrogeology understanding of a region. Here, this study presents a numerical framework in which information from different measurement sources is combined to characterize the 3D random field in a multi-fidelity prediction model. Coupled with the model, a Bayesian experimental design was used to determine the best future sampling locations. The Upper Sangamon watershed in east-central Illinois was selected as the case study site, where the multi-fidelity Gaussian process model was used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity in the region of interest. Multi-source observation data were obtained from electrical resistivity and borehole pumping tests. The accuracy of the model prediction is dependent on the locations and the distribution of both high- and low-fidelity data. Furthermore, the multi-fidelity model was compared with the single-fidelity model. The uncertainties and confidence in the measurements and parameter estimates were quantified and used to design future cycles of data collection to further improve the confidence intervals.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Opportunities for bioenergy crops to support transitions from irrigated agriculture and conserve the U.S. High Plains Aquifer

This study investigates potential economic and groundwater driven transitions from irrigated maize production—the dominant irrigated cropping system in the High Plains Aquifer (HPA) region—to alternative crops such as sorghum and switchgrass, two common bioenergy feedstocks. Unsustainable groundwater extraction in the U.S. High Plains presents critical challenges including reduced irrigation capacities, diminished crop yields, lower land values, and escalating energy costs. Using a spatially explicit optimization framework combined with comprehensive economic and hydrogeological data, we evaluate optimal land-use strategies and irrigation system investments over a 30-year planning period. Results indicate significant regional variability in the future economic viability of irrigated agriculture, driven by differences in aquifer recharge rates, groundwater availability, and market conditions. Nebraska and parts of northern Texas can sustain irrigated maize profitability due to relatively favorable groundwater conditions and lower land rents, respectively. In contrast, many portions of Kansas and southern Texas are more likely to transition to dryland agriculture within two decades. Colorado and New Mexico show potential for significant adoption of switchgrass production as an alternative biomass-based energy crop. Overall, over the 30-year horizon, our model implies that approximately 23% of currently irrigated maize area across the HPA region may transition to dryland farming under business-as-usual conditions. This transition is complemented by a threefold increase in non-irrigated sorghum production, from 0.20 to 0.77 Mt yr−1, indicating that groundwater-driven shifts in agricultural production may support a larger regional base for bioenergy feedstocks. The study also reveals opportunities for producers to optimize economic returns and biomass production potential.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

4D electrical resistivity tomography for assessing the influence of vegetation and subsurface moisture on railway cutting condition

Instability of slopes, embankments, and cuttings on the railway network is increasingly prevalent globally. Monitoring vulnerable infrastructure aids in geotechnical asset management, and improvements to transport safety and efficiency. Here, we examine the use of a novel, near-real-time Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) monitoring system for assessing the stability of a railway cutting in Leicestershire, United Kingdom. In 2015, an ERT monitoring system was installed across a relict landslide (grassed) and an area of more stable ground on either side (wooded), to monitor changes in electrical resistivity through time and space, and to assess the influence of different types of vegetation on the stability of transportation infrastructure. Two years of 4-Dimensional ERT monitoring results are presented here, and petrophysical relationships developed in the laboratory are applied to calibrate the resistivity models in order to provide an insight into hydrogeological pathways within a railway cutting. The influence of vegetation type on subsurface moisture pathways and on slope stability is also assessed – here we find that seasonal subsurface changes in moisture content and soil suction are exacerbated by the presence of trees (wooded area). This results in shrink-swell behaviour of the clays comprising the railway cutting, resulting in fissuring and a reduction in shear strength, leading to instability. As such, it is proposed that on slopes comprised of expansive soils, grassed slopes are beneficial for stability. Insights into the use of 4-D ERT for monitoring railway infrastructure gained from this study may be applied to the monitoring of critical geotechnical assets elsewhere.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Simulation of anoxic lenses as exporters of reactivity in alluvial aquifer sediments

Sedimentary interfaces between contrasting hydrogeological facies in alluvial aquifers drive the development of biogeochemical interfaces that influence subsurface and surface water quality. Here, we calibrate a reactive transport model on a series of dual-domain column experiments, where centimeter-scale, low-permeability, organic-rich anoxic lenses are embedded in coarser-grained aquifer material. Simulations explicitly account for C, Fe, and S cycling at the interface between the lenses and the aquifer in water-saturated conditions. Our results highlight the role of fine-grained, organic-rich inclusions not only as sources or sinks for redox-sensitive species, but also as exporters of nutrients that stimulate downgradient biogeochemical cycling. By releasing large amounts of organic carbon into the surrounding aquifer, such lenses drive the development of proximal secondary reduction zones ("halos"), characterized by high microbial activity (e.g., sulfate reduction) and accumulation of reduced reaction products (e.g., iron sulfide). If similar secondary reduction zones develop within the hydraulically conductive domain of an aquifer, they would be highly susceptible to changes in hydrologic conditions, for instance oxygen pulses associated with seasonal snowmelt. Furthermore, our results also emphasize the limitations of relying solely on aqueous species measurements to inform reactivity in systems where fast redox cycling and/or sizeable particulate transport may limit the signature of reactivity in the dissolved phase.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

A comparative analysis of numerical approaches for the description of gas flow in clay-based repository systems: From a laboratory to a large-scale gas injection test

There is nowadays a consensus among many countries that geological disposal is a favourable solution for the long-term management. Although different host formations and different barrier systems are under consideration around the world, clay-based materials form an important component for waste isolation in most national programmes. Hence, a good comprehension of the effect of gas flow on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of clay-based soils is essential, both at laboratory and field scale. Task B under the international cooperative project DECOVALEX-2023 has recently shown that, after some enhancement, models can be employed to reproduce laboratory scale tests, even with different sample geometries 37 . However, further work is required to understand whether they can be applied to simulate a large-scale experiment. Up-scaling of models for the advective transport of gas through clay-based low permeable material presents a number of problems related to the difficulty in obtaining consistent hydrogeological parameters and constitutive relationships at both laboratory and field scale. Based on a unique dataset from a large-scale gas injection test (Lasgit) performed at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (Sweden), Task B within DECOVALEX-2023 has explored the refinement of these numerical strategies applied to the simulation of gas flow. Work performed within the task reveals that codes do not need to be substantially modified from the laboratory models to reproduce full-scale tests: indeed, model parameters calibrated and validated at laboratory scale have been applied to predict field scale gas flow at Lasgit, including peak gas pressure and injected cumulative gas volume. By means of (1) the introduction of interfaces between blocks to reflect the experimental configuration and the (2) adjustment of some parameters (e.g., higher permeability), the updated models are able to represent most of the key features observed in the experimental data, even at a large scale.

Tamayo-Mas, E↗
DOE OSTI2024

Old-Aged groundwater contributes to mountain hillslope hydrologic dynamics

Understanding connectivity between the soil and deeper bedrock groundwater is needed to accurately predict a watershed’s response to perturbation, such as drought. Yet, the bedrock groundwater dynamics in mountainous environments are typically under-constrained and excluded from watershed hydrologic models. Here, we investigate the role of groundwater characterized with decadal and longer water ages on the hydrologic and mass-transport processes within a steep snow-dominated mountain hillslope in the Central Rocky Mountains (USA). We quantify subsurface and surface water mass-balance, groundwater flowpaths, and age distributions using the ParFlow-CLM integrated hydrologic and EcoSLIM particle tracking models, which are compared to hydrometric and environmental tracer observations. An ensemble of models with varied soil and hydrogeologic parameters reproduces observed groundwater levels and century-scale mean ages inferred from environmental tracers. The numerical models suggest soil water near the toe of the hillslope contains considerable (>60 % of the mass-flux) contributions from bedrock flowpaths characterized with water ages >10 years. Flowpath connectivity between the deeper bedrock and soil systems is present throughout the year, highlighting the potentially critical role of groundwater with old ages on processes such as evapotranspiration and streamflow generation. The coupled numerical model and groundwater age observations show the bedrock groundwater system influences the hillslope hydrodynamics and should be considered in mountain watershed conceptual and numerical models.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Machine-learning-assisted high-temperature reservoir thermal energy storage optimization

High-temperature reservoir thermal energy storage (HT-RTES) has the potential to become an indispensable component in achieving the goal of the net-zero carbon economy, given its capability to balance the intermittent nature of renewable energy generation. In this study, a machine-learning-assisted computational framework is presented to co-optimize the performance metrics of HT-RTES by combining physics-based simulation with stochastic hydrogeologic formation and thermal energy storage operation parameters, artificial neural network regression of the simulation data, and genetic algorithm-enabled multi-objective optimization. A doublet well configuration with a layered (aquitard-aquifer-aquitard) generic reservoir is simulated for cases of continuous operation and seasonal-cycle operation scenarios. Further, neural network-based surrogate models are developed for the two scenarios and applied to generate the Pareto fronts of the HT-RTES performance for four potential HT-RTES sites. The developed Pareto optimal solutions indicate the performance of HT-RTES is operation-scenario (i.e., fluid cycle) and reservoir-site dependent, and the performance metrics have competing effects for a given site and a given fluid cycle. The developed neural network models can be applied to identify suitable sites for HT-RTES, and the proposed framework sheds light on the design of resilient HT-RTES systems.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Geothermal district energy systems coupled with seasonal underground thermal energy storage: a U.S. techno-economic screening by climate and geology

In the United States, cooling-dominated commercial building loads can cause geothermal heat pump-based district energy systems to accumulate a long-term subsurface thermal imbalance, motivating the incorporation of seasonal underground thermal energy storage. We developed a transferable workflow to evaluate geothermal district systems that pair ground heat exchangers with seasonal underground thermal energy storage. Using standardized hourly loads for seven commercial buildings and a uniform cost framework, we simulated ten U.S. cities with a physics-based ground heat exchanger model, subsurface storage simulations, and economic assessment to isolate the roles of climate and hydrogeology. In cooling-dominated cities, underground thermal energy storage supplied the majority of annual cooling, cutting electricity use and summer peaks substantially while achieving levelized costs comparable to or below conventional chiller-boiler plants. In cooler climates, the storage share shrunk, required borefield size and costs rose, and levelized cost of energy increased nearly linearly with declining underground thermal energy storage fraction, indicating storage fraction as the primary economic lever. Sensitivity analysis showed capital risk dominated by borefield drilling and surface heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning and piping, with underground thermal energy storage costs secondary. This workflow provides a transparent foundation for site-specific design and screening of next-generation geothermal district energy systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Underground sources of drinking water chemistry changes in response to potential CO 2 leakage

The purpose of this study was to quantify changes to underground sources of drinking water (USDW) quality in response to potential CO 2 leakage from geologic CO 2 sequestration (GCS) reservoirs. Here, the developed a framework of combined laboratory experiments and reactive transport simulations and used this framework to evaluate the Ogallala aquifer overlying the Farnsworth Unit (FWU), an active GCS site, as a case study. Using chemical reaction parameters obtained from laboratory experiments and numerical simulations, site-specific mechanisms of CO 2 -water-sediment interactions at the USDW aquifer were interpreted. Long-term risks of potential CO 2 leakage were then evaluated with field-scale numerical models using the regional hydrogeological characteristics and reaction parameters obtained from our experiments and simulations. Results suggest that carbonate mineral impurity and cation exchange are key mechanisms for interactions between CO 2 and the aquifer sediment. Additionally, for a large leakage rate of 0.1 % injection from one leaky well, the leakage plume might impact an area of 300 m in diameter and significantly affect the local water quality by changing pH and cation concentrations (e.g., Zn, Ba and Sr). After leakage ceases, the zone of impacted fluids would not migrate significantly in subsequent decades due to a low regional groundwater flowrate (for this case study). The relatively small area of impact might not be detected in a monitoring well given the broader spacing in a typical field scenario. Effective early leakage detection may require additional tools, e.g., borehole CO 2 movement, four-dimensional seismicity, CO 2 soil flux, samples from deeper aquifers, etc., to ensure effective leakage detection and long-term safety of GCS projects.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Groundwater flowpath characteristics drive variability in per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) loading across a stream-wetland system

Groundwater dependent ecosystems in areas with industrial and military land use are at risk of direct exposure to a wide range of contaminants, including PFAS chemicals. Glaciated terrain often has mixed high and low permeability sediments coupled with groundwater flow-through lake features. These hydrogeologic attributes create highly complex ‘source to seep’ dynamics that make spatiotemporal contaminant transport patterns difficult to predict. We investigated one such system in detail using a suite of heat-tracing and chemical methods. Numerous (n=57) preferential groundwater discharge zones (vertical flux rates ranging 0.2 to 3.2 m/d) were identified across the upper Quashnet River stream-wetland system in Mashpee, MA, USA, adjacent to an Air Force Base with several known PFAS source areas. Surface-water and groundwater samples were collected and analyzed (n=145) for precursors and terminal PFAS compounds between March and September 2022. Samples were collected at identified seeps along the Quashnet River (n=59), from wells upgradient from the stream-wetland system (n= 44), from contributing flow-through kettle lakes (n=8), and at multiple locations along the Quashnet River (n=34). Samples from seeps and wells had measured PFAS concentrations ranging from non-detect to approximate 3,500 ng/L (mean= 1,650 ng/L), and a range of deuterium excess values (3.2 to 15.9 per mil) indicative of varying degrees of groundwater-lake interaction prior to emergence at the discharge zones. Groundwater-lake interaction along flowpaths that sourced the sampled seeps was farther supported by significant correlations (p < 0.01) between deuterium excess and %PFAS precursors, and between %PFAS precursors and multiple terminal PFAS compounds (e.g., PFPeS, PFBS, PFHxS). However, some sampled seeps contributing groundwater to the stream-wetland system had much higher total PFAS concentrations (>1000 ng/L) than the upgradient kettle lakes, despite showing lake (evaporative) isotopic signatures, indicating the potential for groundwater flowpath convergence at wetland discharge zones and the influence of lakebed PFAS precursor reactions. PFAS compounds and water isotopic composition at sampled multilevel groundwater wells, rivers, lakes, and seeps suggest that a complex mixture of source groundwater and flowpath characteristics are responsible for diverse observed PFAS mixtures at preferential discharge zones across the stream-wetland system. Further, total PFAS loading patterns to the Quashnet River via groundwater discharge remained remarkably similar from winter to summer to fall conditions, despite a regional dry period in late summer 2022 with the upper river channel completely drying. This work addresses gaps in the existing PFAS literature by demonstrating the importance of subsurface fate and transport on PFAS compound concentrations in controlling contaminant mass loading in preferential groundwater discharge zones and presents a transferrable field toolkit for efficient characterization of spatially preferential PFAS transport dynamics.

Contaminant transport↗
DOE OSTI2023

Geoelectric Characterization of Hyporheic Exchange Flow in the Bedrock‐Lined Streambed of East Fork Poplar Creek, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Abstract A multimethod geoelectric survey was implemented between January and March 2022 along a 220‐m long reach of the bedrock‐lined streambed of East Fork Poplar Creek in Oak Ridge, Tennessee to identify locations of surface‐water and groundwater exchange and characterize the subsurface flow paths that convey water between the stream and flood plain. A waterborne self‐potential (WaSP) survey was completed in January 2022 to measure the electric streaming‐potential field in the stream. Electric resistivity tomography (ERT) was performed in March 2022 on the flood plain adjacent to the WaSP survey reach to map the electric resistivity distribution and characterize the hydrogeology and subsurface flow paths that facilitate surface‐water and groundwater exchange in the bedrock‐lined stream. The combination of WaSP and ERT data support the qualitative interpretation that surface‐water and groundwater exchange likely occurs along fractures in outcropping bedrock and along two fault lines that intersect the limestone creek bed.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Pore Pressure Diffusion and Onset of Induced Seismicity

The Raton Basin of Southern Colorado and Northern New Mexico experienced a significant increase in seismicity over the last several decades, including two M5+ earthquakes. The increase in seismicity started soon after an increase in wastewater disposal associated with coal-bed methane production. Twenty-nine wastewater injection wells have operated in the Basin, with several high-rate injectors located within a kilometer of the most seismically active regions. We developed a pore pressure model to investigate the relationship between pore pressure diffusion and onset of induced seismicity, with an emphasis on the Trinidad fault zones. Our model indicates that sufficient pore pressure increase had accumulated on the northern extent of the Trinidad fault zone to induce seismicity at the time of early-stage seismic activity. The hydrogeologic architecture of the Basin played a key role in controlling pore pressure perturbation. The basal sedimentary interval with moderately low diffusivity restricted vertical pore pressure diffusion, creating a substantial lag time between wells becoming active and the expression of perturbation in the fault zones. The spatiotemporal relationship between early-stage seismicity and wastewater injection in conjunction with modeled pore pressures suggests that the early-stage seismicity in the Raton Basin was likely triggered by pore pressure diffusion.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Effects of Dead‐End Fractures on Non‐Fickian Transport in Three‐Dimensional Discrete Fracture Networks

Abstract Understanding mechanistic causes of non‐Fickian transport in fractured media is important for many hydrogeologic processes and subsurface applications. This study elucidates the effects of dead‐end fractures on non‐Fickian transport in three‐dimensional (3D) fracture networks. Although dead‐end fractures have been identified as low‐velocity regions that could delay solute transport, the direct relation between dead‐end fractures and non‐Fickian transport has been elusive. We systematically generate a large number of 3D discrete fracture networks with different fracture length distributions and fracture densities. We then identify dead‐end fractures using a novel graph‐based method. The effect of dead‐end fractures on solute residence time maximizes at the critical fracture density of the percolation threshold, leading to strong late‐time tailing. As fracture density increases beyond the percolation threshold, the network connectivity increases, and dead‐end fractures diminish. Consequently, the increase in network connectivity leads to a reduction in the degree of late‐time tailing. We also show that dead‐end fractures can inform about main transport paths, such as the mean tortuosity of particle trajectories. This study advances our mechanistic understanding of solute transport in 3D fracture networks.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

The Role of Bedrock Circulation Depth and Porosity in Mountain Streamflow Response to Prolonged Drought

Quantitative understanding is lacking on how the depth of active groundwater circulation in bedrock affects mountain streamflow response to a multi-year drought. We use an integrated hydrological model to explore the sensitivity of a variety of streamflow metrics to bedrock circulation depth and porosity under a plausible extreme drought scenario lasting up to 5 years. Endmember depth versus hydraulic conductivity relationships and porosity values for fractured crystalline rock are simulated. With drought, a deeper circulation system with higher drainable porosity more effectively buffers minimum flow and significantly limits perennial stream loss in comparison to a shallow circulation system. Streamflow buffering is accomplished through extensive groundwater storage loss. However, deeper circulation systems experience prolonged recovery from drought in comparison to storage-limited shallow systems. Research highlights the importance of characterizing the deeper bedrock hydrogeology in mountainous watersheds to better understand and predict drought impacts on stream ecosystem health and water resource sustainability.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Ensemble Kalman inversion of induced polarization data

SUMMARY This paper explores the applicability of ensemble Kalman inversion (EKI) with level-set parametrization for solving geophysical inverse problems. In particular, we focus on its extension to induced polarization (IP) data with uncertainty quantification. IP data may provide rich information on characteristics of geological materials due to its sensitivity to characteristics of the pore–grain interface. In many IP studies, different geological units are juxtaposed and the goal is to delineate these units and obtain estimates of unit properties with uncertainty bounds. Conventional inversion of IP data does not resolve well sharp interfaces and tends to reduce and smooth resistivity variations, while not readily providing uncertainty estimates. Recently, it has been shown for DC resistivity that EKI is an efficient solver for inverse problems which provides uncertainty quantification, and its combination with level set parametrization can delineate arbitrary interfaces well. In this contribution, we demonstrate the extension of EKI to IP data using a sequential approach, where the mean field obtained from DC resistivity inversion is used as input for a separate phase angle inversion. We illustrate our workflow using a series of synthetic and field examples. Variations with uncertainty bounds in both DC resistivity and phase angles are recovered by EKI, which provides useful information for hydrogeological site characterization. Although phase angles are less well-resolved than DC resistivity, partly due to their smaller range and higher percentage data errors, it complements DC resistivity for site characterization. Overall, EKI with level set parametrization provides a practical approach forward for efficient hydrogeophysical imaging under uncertainty.

Geochemistry & Geophysics↗
DOE OSTI2025

Model Scripts for "Old-Aged Groundwater Contributes to Mountain Hillslope Hydrologic Dynamics"

The partitioning of water inputs between deep and shallow groundwater flow paths is a fundamental processes, yet is challenging to observe. Numerical models provide a valuable tool to further develop insights on these groundwater mixing processes. This repository contains scripts to run the ParFlow-CLM and EcoSLIM integrated hydrologic models along the Pumphouse Hillslope in the East River Watershed and associated python scripts to process model outputs. Files includes input decks for the associated models, python scripts, and text and css files to support the model runs and processing. The 2-D hillslope model simulates from 2000 to 2021 using transient forcing conditions from the publicly available NLDAS-2 dataset. We develop an ensemble of models with variable hydrogeologic and soil parameters. Model outputs from the ensemble of runs are compared to to water level observations at the PLM1 and PLM6 wells published at (https://data.ess-dive.lbl.gov/view/doi:10.15485/1866836) and groundwater mean ages published at (https://data.ess-dive.lbl.gov/datasets/doi:10.15485/1960042. The model results are used to evaluate hillslope water mass-balance transience and mixing dynamics between groundwater flow paths with young (<10 year) and old (>10 year) ages.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

ParFlow Sand Tank: A tool for groundwater exploration

The ParFlow Sand Tank model is an open source application designed to allow users to interactively simulate and visualize groundwater movement through the subsurface. The app is designed for both research and education; teaching hydrogeology concepts and making it easy explore and run sophisticated groundwater simulations. Our goal is to support increased accessibility and usability of research grade hydrology tools for research and teaching. The Sand Tank application simulates groundwater and surface water fluxes as well as contaminant transport in real time using the integrated physical hydrology model ParFlow (Kollet & Maxwell, 2006; Maxwell & Miller, 2005; Osei-Kuffuor et al., 2014) and the particle tracking code EcoSlim (Maxwell et al., 2019). ParFlow is a numerical hydrology model that simulates spatially distributed groundwater and surface water flow. It is a well established research tool with more than 90 publications documenting its development use to advance our understanding of groundwater dynamics and groundwater surface water interactions from the hillslope to the continental scale e.g. (Condon et al., 2020; Condon & Maxwell, 2019; Maxwell & Condon, 2016). It is designed for efficient parallel computation and has been run on many platforms spanning from laptops to supercomputers. However, one of the challenges of ParFlow is that it requires significant training and hydrologic expertise to develop simulations. The Sand Tank application makes this model accessible to anyone for education and exploration. Our application uses ParFlow for its simulation backend and ParaView for the data loading and processing. The communication infrastructure relies on the ParaViewWeb framework. We use model templates deployed in Docker images to setup the Sand Tank framework. Users can build the application locally or interact with it through our web deployment. When interacting with a template users can interactively change model parameters like subsurface processes or pump/inject water into the subsurface and watch the system respond to their changes in real time as the simulation runs. Additionally, our template setup will allow more advanced users to build custom templates of increasing complexity for both research and educational purposes.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗