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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2019

A Recent Volcanic Eruption, Holuhraun, in the Central Highlands of Iceland as a Mars analog: The 2018 Field Campaign of FELDSPAR

In summer 2018, FELDSPAR conducted an analog sampling expedition to the Holuhraun volcanoin the central highlands of Iceland that erupted from August 2014 to February 2015. Holuhraun hassteep gradients within an otherwise relatively controlled region, and thus served as the primaryMars analog site for the 2018 FELDSPAR field campaign. Samples along gradients of mineralogyas measured via near-IR and visible reflectance spectroscopy, temperature as measured by an IRprobe, and physical location about the fissure (slope incline, directionality, height up the slope,etc.) were analyzed in-field with reflectance spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence, in the field labfor adenosine trisphosphate (ATP) as an indicator of metabolic activity, and after return to thehome lab for both geochemical and geophysical parameters (moisture content, grain size, X-raydiffraction) and biochemical parameters (DNA content and speciation). This abstract representsthe first report on the 2018 field campaign with initial results and interpretation. This work is part ofField Exploration and Life Detection Sampling for Planetary Analogue Research (FELDSPAR), onFacebook @FELDSPAResearch.

Volcanic↗
NASA NTRS2006

March 2003 EOS Aqua AMSR-E Arctic Sea Ice Field Campaign

An overview of the March 2003 coordinated sea ice field campaign in the Alaskan Arctic is presented with reference to the papers in this special section. This campaign is part of the program to validate the Aqua Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) sea ice products. Standard AMSR-E sea ice products include sea ice concentration, sea ice temperature, and snow depth on sea ice. The validation program consists of three elements, namely: 1) satellite data comparisons; 2) coordinated satellite/aircraft surface measurements; and 3) modeling and sensitivity analyses. Landsat-7 and RADARSAT observations were used in comparative studies with the retrieved AMSR-E sea ice concentrations. The aircraft sensors provided high-resolution microwave imagery of the surface, atmospheric profiles of temperature and humidity, and digital records of sea ice conditions. When combined with in situ measurements, aircraft data were used to validate the AMSR-E sea ice temperature and snow-depth products. The modeling studies helped interpret the field-data comparisons, provided insight on the limitations of the AMSR-E sea ice algorithms, and suggested potential improvements to the AMSR-E retrieval algorithms.

Cavalieri, Donald J.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Simultaneous transmission/absorption photometry of particle-laden filters from wildland fires during the Biomass Burning Observation Project (BBOP) field campaign

Transmissivity and absorptivity measurements were carried out simultaneously in the visible (wavelength of 532 nm) at laboratory conditions using particle-laden filters obtained from a three-wavelength particle/soot absorption photometer (PSAP). Here, the particles were collected on filters from wildland fires over the Pacific Northwest during the Department of Energy Biomass Burning Observation Project (BBOP) field campaign in 2013. The objective of this investigation was to apply this measurement approach, referred to as simultaneous transmission/absorption photometry (STAP), to estimate the aerosol extinction coefficient from actual field-campaign filter aerosol, and compare results with the PSAP. The STAP approach offers several advantages over the PSAP, including estimation of the extinction coefficient from temperature measurements (avoiding the complexities associated with filter reflectivity/scattering measurements), as well as determination of the filter optical properties and filter effects on particle absorption (resulting in particle absorption enhancement). The experimental arrangement included a laser probe beam impinging normal to the particle-coated surface of a vertically mounted filter, and a thermocouple placed flush in the middle of (and in thermal contact with) the filter uncoated back surface. With this simple arrangement, the transmissivity and absorptivity were determined simultaneously at a given laser beam wavelength. The measurement repeatability was better than 0.3 K (95% confidence level) for temperature and 0.4 mW for laser power. The limit of detection for the extinction coefficient was estimated to be (8–12) Mm -1 (95% confidence level) at about 1.9 mW laser power. The extinction coefficient was determined through measurement of both PSAP blank and exposed filters. Filters were obtained from nine different aircraft flights conducted during the BBOP campaign, representing different flight patterns, days, stages of burning, landscapes, and wildland fires. The STAP extinction coefficient matched the darkness of the filter coating, however the PSAP-filter results did not follow the same order. Although there were differences in transmissivity between the two techniques, the estimated values for absorption coefficient were in good agreement.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2008

Desert Research and Technology Studies (RATS) 2007 Field Campaign Objectives and Results

Desert "RATS" (Research and Technology Studies) is a combined, multi-discipline group of inter-NASA center scientists and engineers, net-working and collaborating with representatives of industry and academia, for the purpose of conducting planetary surface exploration-focused remote field exercises. These integrated testing exercises conducted under representative analog Lunar and Mars surface terrain conditions, provide NASA the capability to validate experimental prototype hardware and software systems as well as to evaluate and develop mission operational techniques in order to identify and establish technical requirements and identify potential technology "gaps" applicable for future planetary human exploration. The 2007 D-RATS field campaign test activities were initiated based on the major themes and objectives of a notional 5-year plan developed for conducting relative analog test activities in support of the engineering evaluation and assessment of various system architectural requirements, conceptual prototype support equipment and selected technologies necessary for the establishment of a lunar outpost. Specifically, the major objectives included measuring task efficiency during robot, human, and human-robot interactive tasks associated with lunar outpost site surveying and reconnaissance activities and deployment of a representative solar panel power and distribution system. In addition, technology demonstrations were conducted with a new Lithium-ion battery and autonomous software to coordinate multiple robot activities. Secondary objectives were evaluating airlock concept mockups and prototype removable space suit over-garment elements for dust mitigation, and upgrades to the prototype extravehicular activities (EVA) communication and information system. Dry run test activities, prior to testing at a designated remote field site location, were initially conducted at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) Remote Field Demonstration Test Site. This is a multi-acre external test site located at JSC and has detailed representative terrain features simulating both Lunar and Mars surface characteristics. Both the local JSC and remote field test sites have terrain conditions that are representative and characteristic of both the Moon and Mars, such as strewn rock and volcanic ash fields, craters, rolling plains, hills, gullies, slopes, and outcrops. The D-RATS 2007 field campaign, representing the completion of its tenth year of analog testing, was conducted at the large Cinder Lake volcanic ash bed area adjacent to Flagstaff, Arizona.

Kosmo, Joseph↗
DOE OSTI2024

TROPOS pyranometer network (PyrNet) observational data set collected during the S2VSR field campaign

During the Small-Scale Variability of Solar Radiation field campaign (S2VSR), a unique sensor network consisting of 60 autonomous pyranometer stations was deployed for a 12-week period at the ARM Southern Great Plains observatory. Stations have been distributed across a 4x4 to 6x6 km2 domain surrounding the Central Facility. Each station has recorded global radiation together with air temperature and relative humidity with a sampling frequency of 1-Hz. The network has provided a data set with an unprecedented level of detail of the small-scale variability of global solar radiation at the surface, resolving fluctuations down to the second- and decameter-scale.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2015

Exploring Dust Impacts on Tropical Systems from the NASA HS-3 Field Campaign

One of the overall scientific goals of the NASA Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS-3) field campaign is to better understand the role of the Saharan Air Layer (SAL) in tropical storm development. During the 2012 HS-3 deployment, the Cloud Physics Lidar (CPL) observed dust within SAL air in close proximity to a developing Nadine (September 11, 2012). Throughout the mission, the NASA GEOS-5 modeling system supported HS-3 by providing 0.25 degrees resolution 5-day global forecasts of aerosols, which were used to support mission planning. The aerosol module was radiatively interactive within the GEOS-5 model, but aerosols were not directly coupled to cloud and precipitation processes. In this study we revisit the aerosol forecasts with an updated version of the GEOS-5 model. For the duration of Hurricane Nadine, we run multiday climate simulations leading up to each respective Global Hawk flight with and without aerosol direct interaction. For each set of simulations, we compare simulated dust mass fluxes to identify differences in SAL entrainment related to the interaction between dust aerosols and the atmosphere. We find that the direct effects of dust induce a low level anticyclonic circulation that temporarily shields Nadine from the intrusion of dry air, leading to a more intense storm.

hurricanes↗
DOE OSTI2023

What Are the Similarities and Differences in Marine Boundary Layer Cloud and Drizzle Microphysical Properties During the ACE–ENA and MARCUS Field Campaigns?

This study compares macrophysical and microphysical properties of single-layered, liquid-dominant MBL clouds from the Measurements of Aerosols, Radiation, and Clouds over the Southern Ocean (MARCUS) (above 60°S) and the ARM East North Atlantic (ENA) site during the Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. A total of 1,136 (16.5% of clouds) and 6,034 5-min cloud samples are selected from MARCUS and ARM ENA in this study. MARCUS clouds have higher cloud-top heights, thicker cloud layers, larger liquid water path, and colder cloud temperatures than ENA. Thinner, warmer MBL clouds at ENA can contain higher layer-mean liquid water content due to higher cloud and ocean surface temperatures along with greater precipitable water vapor (PWV). MARCUS has a higher drizzle frequency rate (71.8%) than ENA (45.1%). Retrieved cloud and drizzle microphysical properties from each field campaign show key differences. MARCUS clouds feature smaller cloud droplets, whereas ENA clouds have larger cloud droplets, especially at the upper region of the cloud. From cloud top to cloud base, drizzle drop sizes increase while number concentrations decrease. Drizzle drop radius and number concentration decrease from cloud base to drizzle base due to net evaporation, and MARCUS' lower specific humidity leads to a higher drizzle base than ENA. In conclusion, the broader surface pressure and lower tropospheric stability (LTS) distributions during MARCUS have demonstrated that there are different synoptic patterns for selected cases during MARCUS with less PWV, while ENA is dominated by high pressure systems with nearly doubled PWV.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2003

Retrieval of Hydrometeor Drop Size Distributions from TRMM Field Campaign Profiler Doppler Velocity Spectra Observations

Consistent with the original proposal and work plan, this project focused on estimating the raindrop size distributions (DSDs) retrieved from vertically pointing Doppler radar profilers and analyzing the relationship of the retrieved DSDs with the dynamics of the precipitation processes. The first phase of this project focused on developing the model to retrieve the DSD from the observed Doppler velocity spectra. The second phase used this model to perform DSD retrievals from the profiler observations made during the TRMM Ground Validation Field Campaigns of TEFLUN-B, TRMM-LBA, and KWAJEX. The third phase of this project established collaborations with scientists involved with each field campaign in order to validate the profiler DSD estimates and to enable the profiler retrievals to be used in their research. Through these collaborations, the retrieved DSDs were placed into context with the dynamical processes of the observed precipitating cloud systems.

Williams, Christopher R.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Vertical dependence of horizontal variation of cloud microphysics: observations from the ACE-ENA field campaign and implications for warm-rain simulation in climate models

Abstract. In the current global climate models (GCMs), the nonlinearity effect of subgrid cloud variations on the parameterization of warm-rain process, e.g., the autoconversion rate, is often treated by multiplying the resolved-scale warm-rain process rates by a so-called enhancement factor (EF). In this study, we investigate the subgrid-scale horizontal variations and covariation of cloud water content (qc) and cloud droplet number concentration (Nc) in marine boundary layer (MBL) clouds based on the in situ measurements from a recent field campaign and study the implications for the autoconversion rate EF in GCMs. Based on a few carefully selected cases from the field campaign, we found that in contrast to the enhancing effect of qc and Nc variations that tends to make EF > 1, the strong positive correlation between qc and Nc results in a suppressing effect that tends to make EF < 1. This effect is especially strong at cloud top, where the qc and Nc correlation can be as high as 0.95. We also found that the physically complete EF that accounts for the covariation of qc and Nc is significantly smaller than its counterpart that accounts only for the subgrid variation of qc, especially at cloud top. Although this study is based on limited cases, it suggests that the subgrid variations of Nc and its correlation with qc both need to be considered for an accurate simulation of the autoconversion process in GCMs.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2022

Estimation of Fire-induced CO Plume Age from NAST-I During the FIREX-AQ Field Campaign

Ultra-spectrally resolved infrared measurements from aircraft and space-based observations contain information about tropospheric carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O3), as well as other trace species. A methodology for retrieving these tropospheric trace species from such remotely sensed spectral data has been developed and validated for the National Airborne Sounder Testbed-Interferometer (NAST–I). The Fire Influence on Regional to Global Environments and Air Quality (FIREX-AQ) field campaign was conducted during August 2019 to investigate the impact of wildfire and biomass smoke on air quality and weather in the continental United States. NAST–I CO and O3 measurements from the recent FIREX-AQ field campaign are presented and used to estimate wildfire plume age. Results show enhanced levels of CO in the evolving plume as it is transported away from the fire ground site, and its plume age is associated with the plume distance in both the vertical and horizontal directions from the wildfire location. These results are enabled by the moderate-vertical and high-horizontal resolution obtained from the NAST–I IR spectrometer onboard the NASA ER-2 aircraft. This study advances our knowledge of fire-induced plumes with their evolution and age characterized in three-dimensional space using information from NAST–I retrieved CO and O3 and relative changes in their concentrations.

plume age↗
NASA NTRS2024

Lightning and Radar Measures of Mixed Phase Updraft Variability in Tracked Storms During the TRACER Field Campaign in Houston, Texas

Properties of 7488 thunderstorms are summarized for June-September 2022 during the TRACER field campaign Houston, Texas using polarimetric weather radar and VHF 3D lightning mapping array data. Automated tracking of storms linked each instrument’s measurements to a data-defined, time-evolving storm footprint. Within each storm, the depth and magnitude of episodic columns of radar differential reflectivity and specific differential phase quantified the prevalence of updrafts that activated mixed-phase precipitation pathways. Lightning measurements further distinguished the degree of rimed precipitation formation: the fraction of tracks with lightning varied from day to day, and cells with lightning had stronger polarimetric columns. Track-level correlation of lightning flash rate with radar polarimetric measures had substantial spread, showing that lightning provides an additional signal of mixed-phase precipitation processes that can complement future studies of thermodynamic and aerosol controls on cloud microphysics in the Houston region.

TRACER field campaign↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Using Optical Lightning Detection Data from the 2017 GOES-R Post Launch Test Field Campaign Flights as an Evaluation of Convective Processes

The primary mechanisms for thunderstorm electrification and lightning production are widely understood and allow connections between lightning intensity and occurrence to be used to derive storm strength and forecast the probability of related weather phenomena. However, these assumed relationships between lightning and convective properties were discovered primarily using ground-based lightning sensors and measurements, meaning the true depth of insight from space or air based detections is widely unexplored. In 2017, a field campaign was launched to validate the instrumentation aboard the GOES-16 satellite. It involved flying a NASA-ER2 aircraft over multiple storms across the continental US and it included the Fly’s Eye GLM Simulator (FEGS) as a proxy for the Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM). Utilizing the data from this field campaign, one of the main goals of this project is to investigate how attributes of convection impact optical lightning detection and the subsequent assumptions that can be made in relation to convective dynamics and precipitation microphysics. Hydrometeor identification, 3D winds retrieval, and additional radar and LiDAR data analysis will be utilized alongside FEGS and interferometer data in order to observe these relationships. This presentation will be to lay out the initial conclusions from our analysis and to explore any new insights or contradictions within our findings.

Kaitlyn Wheeler↗
DOE OSTI2023

Agricultural Ice Nuclei at Southern Great Plains (AGINSGP) Field Campaign Report

The Agricultural Ice Nuclei at Southern Great Plains (AGINSGP) field campaign was conducted from April 4 to April 29, 2022, at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) SGP site in Oklahoma. The goal of this campaign was to improve understanding of the sources and variability of ice-nucleating particles (INPs) at the SGP site. To this end, the key objectives of the campaign were (1) to produce a high-quality data set including measurements of atmospheric INP concentrations and aerosol particle properties relevant to the sources of INPs; and (2) to conduct a residual characterization experiment including offline and online analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics of INPs sampled in ambient air at SGP.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Beryllium Isotopes in Rainfall for Stratospheric-Tropospheric Exchange Dynamics Experiment (BIRDIE) (Field Campaign Report)

The Beryllium Isotopes in Rainfall for Stratospheric-Tropospheric Exchange Dynamics Experiment or BIRDIE was a precipitation collection campaign designed to measure cosmogenic isotopes of beryllium in rainfall and other forms of precipitation across the U.S. Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility’s Southern Great Plains (SGP) atmospheric observatory. Precipitation samples were collected over three weeks (May 21-June 10, 2022) at 11 SGP sites across a 120-km 2 domain in northern and central Oklahoma. The field campaign targeted summertime convection rain events. We aimed to capture any spatial and/or temporal variability in the concentrations of beryllium-10 (10Be) and beryllium-7 (7Be) across the ARM SGP site during these rainfall events. The ratio of 10Be to 7Be (10/7Be) has been shown to be a powerful tracer for transport processes in the stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) system (e.g., Koch and Rind 1998). Any observed variability is analyzed to see if it could be linked to STE processes, including overshooting of deep convection clouds that penetrate the lower stratosphere. Six wet weather system events were collected within our three-week span. Five out of six of these rainfall events are classified as moderately to strongly convective. Those events are studied in more detail. The five systems also follow each other over a short period of 11 days. In our rainfall samples we observed spatial and event variability in the concentrations of beryllium-10 and -7 that resulted in variability of 10/7Be ratios. Each weather event appeared to exhibit a unique 10/7Be pattern across the domain that was not directly linked to storm total precipitation amount. To better understand the causes for this spatial variability, cloud characteristics in the domain were looked at to assess cloud type, cloud height, and depth information. We also ran Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model back trajectories to identify possible air mass and moisture origins across our events. Detailed analysis is ongoing. The purpose of this technical report is to provide background on using cosmogenic isotopes as atmospheric tracers, describe the experimental design, and present the beryllium concentration and ratio data. Lastly, we note that BIRDIE coincided with two other deep convection field campaigns in the area: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)’s Dynamics and Chemistry of the Summer Stratosphere (DCOTSS) experiment (https://dcotss.org/) centered in Salina, Kansas, and the Targeted Observation by Radars and (uncrewed aerial systems) UAS of Supercells (TORUS) experiment (https://catalog.eol.ucar.edu/torus_2022) across the U.S. Central Plains. Additionally, a Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL) team at DCOTSS attempted to measure 10Be/7Be ratios on aerosols collected in situ in the lower and mid-stratosphere over Kansas using high-altitude balloons. Precipitation samples were also collected on the ground in Salina, Kansas.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Arctic Aerosol Sources and Mixing States Field Campaign Report

The Arctic is warming at a faster rate than anywhere else on Earth, with rapidly shrinking sea ice extent transforming the region. Depending on chemical and physical properties, atmospheric aerosols directly scatter and/or absorb radiation, serve as cloud droplet and/or ice crystal nuclei, and/or reduce the reflectiveness of the snow surface, thereby altering the atmospheric energy budget. There is a wide spread in the magnitude of simulated arctic aerosol radiative forcing, and significant differences in aerosol concentration levels and seasonal cycles often exist between models and observations. Increasing local natural and anthropogenic emissions are significant, with uncertain climate impacts due to complex feedbacks. Model evaluations, however, are limited by the dearth of arctic aerosol observations available and an inadequate understanding of arctic aerosol processes. The majority of previous arctic aerosol observations have been made through intensive spring/summer field campaigns, with few intensive measurement studies focused on the fall-winter transition, a period when freeze-up is occurring later and thinning sea ice is resulting in wintertime ice fracturing. Aerosol monitoring at arctic coastal stations has provided knowledge of long-term seasonal trends in aerosol concentrations. The completed ARM field campaign addresses observational and knowledge gaps through detailed aerosol size and chemical composition measurements during the fall-winter transition in the coastal Arctic and through the entire annual cycle in the central Arctic. The observations are improving our understanding of the sources and processes controlling the aerosol population in the rapidly changing Arctic.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2005

Analysis of Upper Air, Ground and Remote Sensing Data for the Atlas Field Campaign in San Juan, Puerto Rico

The general climate of the island of Puerto Rico is dominated by the easterly trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean, and during synoptically calm days by the topographic and local land surface characteristics [1]. The urban canopy of the metropolitan area of San Juan, capital city of the Island, may introduce a new microclimate that changes the characteristics of the low atmosphere and interacts with the other microclimates already present in the island. The primitive land cover and land use (LCLU) of the metropolitan area of San Juan was composed by broadleaf trees, moist soils, and very dense vegetation in general. The urban LCLU changes the balance for the mass, momentum and energy between the bottom boundary and the lower atmosphere, creating different climate conditions over urban and rural regions. Some of these differences are low relative humidity and high temperatures observed in urban areas when compared to rural areas. These in turn produces a convective circulation over the urban areas, a phenomenon compared to the sea and land breezes, commonly known as heat islands (UHI). Factors that contribute to the formation of the UHI are anthropogenic heat sources, aerosols from pollutants, fast water canalization due to the presence of buildings and streets, among others. The comparison between urban and rural climates is the most common approach to analyze the UHI. These contrasts are larger in clear and calm conditions and tend to disappear in cloudy and windy weather. The UHI was recognized in the early 1950 s as closed isotherms that separates the city from the general temperature field [2]. The impact of the urban LCLU in San Juan, Puerto Rico, was quantified calculating the difference between historical data sets for the air temperature over an identified urban area and a rural area dT(U-R). The analysis of the climatological data revealed that a UHI exists in the metropolitan area of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The data reveals a permanent urban heat island effect present in the SJMA during the year, which is increasing at a rate of 0.41oC/decade. These findings encouraged the planning and execution of an intense field campaign in February 2004 referred as the ATLAS San Juan mission. The focus of the remaining of this report is the analysis of the data for this field campaign.

Gonzalez-Cruz, Jorge E.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Evaluation of GEOS-5 Sulfur Dioxide Simulations During the Frostburg, MD 2010 Field Campaign.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major atmospheric pollutant with a strong anthropogenic component mostly produced by the combustion of fossil fuel and other industrial activities. As a precursor of sulfate aerosols that affect climate, air quality, and human health, this gas needs to be monitored on a global scale. Global climate and chemistry models including aerosol processes along with their radiative effects are important tools for climate and air quality research. Validation of these models against in-situ and satellite measurements is essential to ascertain the credibility of these models and to guide model improvements. In this study the Goddard Chemistry, Aerosol, Radiation, and Transport (GOCART) module running on-line inside the Goddard Earth Observing System version 5 (GEOS-5) model is used to simulate aerosol and SO2 concentrations. Data taken in November 2010 over Frostburg, Maryland during an SO2 field campaign involving ground instrumentation and aircraft are used to evaluate GEOS-5 simulated SO2 concentrations. Preliminary data analysis indicated the model overestimated surface SO2 concentration, which motivated the examination of mixing processes in the model and the specification of SO2 anthropogenic emission rates. As a result of this analysis, a revision of anthropogenic emission inventories in GEOS-5 was implemented, and the vertical placement of SO2 sources was updated. Results show that these revisions improve the model agreement with observations locally and in regions outside the area of this field campaign. In particular, we use the ground-based measurements collected by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) for the year 2010 to evaluate the revised model simulations over North America.

Air Quality Campaign↗
NASA NTRS2024

Winter Lightning to the Lee of Lake Ontario: The Lake-Effect Electrification (LEE) Field Campaign

The National Science Foundation-sponsored Lake-Effect Electrification (LEE) field campaign intensive observation periods occurred between November and early February 2022-23 across the eastern Lake Ontario region. Project LEE documented, for the first time, the total lightning and electrical charge structures of lake-effect storms and the associated storm environment using a lightning mapping array (LMA), a mobile dual-polarization X-band radar, and balloon-based soundings that measured vertical profiles of temperature, humidity, wind, electric field, and hydrometeor types. LEE also observed abundant wind turbine-initiated lightning, which is climatologically more likely during the winter. The frequent occurrence of intense lake-effect storms and the proximity of a wind farm with nearly 300 turbines each more than 100 m tall to the lee of Lake Ontario provided an ideal laboratory for this study.

Scott M Steiger↗