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Review of recent research of interior noise of propeller aircraft

Publications on the topics of propeller source noise, airborne noise transmission, and passenger comfort response to noise and vibration are reviewed. Of the 187 publications referenced, 140 have appeared since 1978. Examples of research accomplishments are presented to illustrate the state of the art. Emphasis is on comparisons of theoretical and measured results, but the description of the theories is left to the references. This review shows that substantial progress has been made in understanding the characteristics of propeller noise, airborne noise, and passenger response, and in the development of prediction methods. Application of the technology to cabin noise control and possible future research directions are discussed.

Mixson, J. S.

A shock wave approach to the noise of supersonic propellers

To model propeller noise expected for a turboprop aircraft, the pressure ratio across the shock at the propeller tip was calculated and compared with noise data from three propellers. At helical tip Mach numbers over 1.0, using only the tip shock wave, the model gave a fairly good prediction of the noise for a bladed propeller and for a propeller swept for aerodynamic purposes. However for another propeller, which was highly swept and designed to have noise cancellations from the inboard propeller sections, the shock strength from the tip over predicted the noise. In general the good agreement indicates that shock theory is a viable method for predicting the noise from these supersonic propellers but that the shock strengths from all of the blade sections need to be properly included.

Dittmar, J. H.

Comparison of propeller cruise noise data taken in the NASA Lewis 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel with other tunnel and flight data

The noise of advanced high speed propeller models measured in the NASA 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel has been compared with model propeller noise measured in another tunnel and with full-scale propeller noise measured in flight. Good agreement was obtained for the noise of a model counterrotation propeller tested in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel and in the acoustically treated test section of the Boeing Transonic Wind Tunnel. This good agreement indicates the relative validity of taking cruise noise data on a plate in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel compared with the free-field method in the Boeing tunnel. Good agreement was also obtained for both single rotation and counter-rotation model noise comparisons with full-scale propeller noise in flight. The good scale model to full-scale comparisons indicate both the validity of the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel data and the ability to scale to full size. Boundary layer refraction on the plate provides a limitation to the measurement of forward arc noise in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel at the higher harmonics of the blade passing tone. The use of a validated boundary layer refraction model to adjust the data could remove this limitation.

Dittmar, James H.

Comparison of propeller cruise noise data taken in the NASA Lewis 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel with other tunnel and flight data

The noise of advanced high speed propeller models measured in the NASA 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel has been compared with model propeller noise measured in another tunnel and with full-scale propeller noise measured in flight. Good agreement was obtained for the noise of a model counterrotation propeller tested in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel and in the acoustically treated test section of the Boeing Transonic Wind Tunnel. This good agreement indicates the relative validity of taking cruise noise data on a plate in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel compared with the free-field method in the Boeing tunnel. Good agreement was also obtained for both single rotation and counter-rotation model noise comparisons with full-scale propeller noise in flight. The good scale model to full-scale comparisons indicate both the validity of the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel data and the ability to scale to full size. Boundary layer refraction on the plate provides a limitation to the measurement of forward arc noise in the 8- by 6-foot wind tunnel at the higher harmonics of the blade passing tone. The sue of a validated boundary layer refraction model to adjust the data could remove this limitation.

Dittmar, James

Installation noise measurements of model SR and CR propellers

Noise measurements on a 0.1 scale SR-2 propeller in a single and counter rotation mode, in a pusher and tractor configuration, and operating at non-zero angles of attack are summarized. A measurement scheme which permitted 143 measurements of each of these configurations in the Langley 4- by 7-meter low speed tunnel is also described.

Block, P. J. W.

Computational methods in the prediction of advanced subsonic and supersonic propeller induced noise: ASSPIN users' manual

This document describes the computational aspects of propeller noise prediction in the time domain and the use of high speed propeller noise prediction program ASSPIN (Advanced Subsonic and Supersonic Propeller Induced Noise). These formulations are valid in both the near and far fields. Two formulations are utilized by ASSPIN: (1) one is used for subsonic portions of the propeller blade; and (2) the second is used for transonic and supersonic regions on the blade. Switching between the two formulations is done automatically. ASSPIN incorporates advanced blade geometry and surface pressure modelling, adaptive observer time grid strategies, and contains enhanced numerical algorithms that result in reduced computational time. In addition, the ability to treat the nonaxial inflow case has been included.

Dunn, M. H.

Theory for noise of propellers in angular inflow with parametric studies and experimental verification

This report presents the derivation of a frequency domain theory and working equations for radiation of propeller harmonic noise in the presence of angular inflow. In applying the acoustic analogy, integration over the tangential coordinate of the source region is performed numerically, permitting the equations to be solved without approximation for any degree of angular inflow. Inflow angle is specified in terms of yaw, pitch, and roll angles of the aircraft. Since these can be arbitrarily large, the analysis applies with equal accuracy to propellers and helicopter rotors. For thickness and loading, the derivation is given in complete detail with working equations for near and far field. However, the quadrupole derivation has been carried only far enough to show feasibility of the numerical approach. Explicit formulas are presented for computation of source elements, evaluation of Green's functions, and location of observer points in various visual and retarded coordinate systems. The resulting computer program, called WOBBLE has been written in FORTRAN and follows the notation of this report very closely. The new theory is explored to establish the effects of varying inflow angle on axial and circumferential directivity. Also, parametric studies were performed to evaluate various phenomena outside the capabilities of earlier theories, such as an unsteady thickness effect. Validity of the theory was established by comparison with test data from conventional propellers and Prop Fans in flight and in wind tunnels under a variety of operating conditions and inflow angles.

Propeller acoustics

Machine Learning Methods for Estimating Propeller Source Noise Spheres

In this work, several neural network function approximations are compared for inter- polating, storing, and sampling acoustic source spheres with applications to propeller noise estimation. These methods are compared using an acoustic model of the three bladed GL-10 propeller at different flight conditions, with training data generated using NASA’s ANOPP-PAS module. The source spheres used to train the networks capture the tonal propeller noise due to both the blade thickness and loading. This tonal noise prediction method allows the vehicle noise to be estimated for auralization and acoustic control. Three radial basis function neural network architectures are compared in this work. The first two networks directly estimate the parameters of the source sphere at different flight conditions but differ in the number of layers used. The third network estimates the parameters of the source sphere using a weighted combination of spherical basis functions. These networks are trained on numerically generated source spheres, with operating points given in terms of the propeller rotation rate, freestream speed, and propeller angle of attack. The performance of the neural network is determined using a validation dataset of withheld data points. This performance is quantified in terms of the approximation error, training time, and sample time. The third network, which estimates the weights of the spherical basis functions, performs the best in both average and maximum approximation errors in all cases. This network’s worst case performance is 5.6 % relative dif- ference of a model parameter associated with acoustic pressure. The direct estimation network with a single layer has the worst approximation error in all cases. Additionally, the spherically defined network has the slowest sample time at 0.05 seconds per thousand points. Both direct estimation methods produce a thousand sample points in approximately 0.001 seconds.

Acoustics

Directivity and trends of noise generated by a propeller in a wake

An experimental study of the effects on far-field propeller noise of a pylon wake interaction was conducted with a scale model of a single-rotation propeller in a low-speed anechoic wind tunnel. A detailed mapping of the noise directivity was obtained at 10 test conditions covering a wide range of propeller power landings at several subsonic tip speeds. Two types of noise penalties were investigated-pulser and spacing. The pusher noise penalty is the difference in the average overall sound pressure level, OASPL, for pusher and tractor installations. (In a pusher installation, the propeller disk is downstream of a pylon or another aerodynamic surface.) The spacing noise penalty is the difference in the average OASPL for different distances between the pylon trailing edge and the propeller. The variations of these noise penalties with axial, or flyover, angle theta and circumferential angle phi are presented, and the trends in these noise penalties with tip Mach number and power loading are given for selected values of theta and phi. The circumferential directivity of the noise from a pusher installation showed that the addition noise due to the interaction of the pylon wake with the propeller had a broad peak over a wide range of circumferential angles approximately perpendicular to the pylon with a sharp minimum 90 deg. to the pylon for the majority of cases tested. The variation of the pusher noise penalty with theta had a minimum occurring near the propeller plane and maximum values of as much as 20 dB occurring toward the propeller axes. The magnitude of the pusher noise penalty generally decreased as propeller tip Mach number or power loading was increased.

Block, P. J. W.

An assessment of propeller aircraft noise reduction technology

This report is a review of the literature regarding propeller airplane far-field noise reduction. Near-field and cabin noise reduction are not specifically addressed. However, some of the approaches used to reduce far-field noise produce beneficial effects in the near-field and in the cabin. The emphasis is on propeller noise reduction but engine exhaust noise reduction by muffling is also addressed since the engine noise becomes a significant part of the aircraft noise signature when propeller noise is reduced. It is concluded that there is a substantial body of information available that can be used as the basis to reduce propeller airplane noise. The reason that this information is not often used in airplane design is the associated weight, cost, and performance penalties. It is recommended that the highest priority be given to research for reducing the penalties associated with lower operating RPM and propeller diameter while increasing the number of blades. Research to reduce engine noise and explore innovative propeller concepts is also recommended.

Metzger, F. Bruce

Noise reduction for model counterrotation propeller at cruise by reducing aft-propeller diameter

The forward propeller of a model counterrotation propeller was tested with its original aft propeller and with a reduced diameter aft propeller. Noise reductions with the reduced diameter aft propeller were measured at simulated cruise conditions. Reductions were as large as 7.5 dB for the aft-propeller passing tone and 15 dB in the harmonics at specific angles. The interaction tones, mostly the first, were reduced probably because the reduced-diameter aft-propeller blades no longer interacted with the forward propeller tip vortex. The total noise (sum of primary and interaction noise) at each harmonic was significantly reduced. The chief noise reduction at each harmonic came from reduced aft-propeller-alone noise, with the interaction tones contributing little to the totals at cruise. Total cruise noise reductions were as much as 3 dB at given angles for the blade passing tone and 10 dB for some of the harmonics. These reductions would measurably improve the fuselage interior noise levels and represent a definite cruise noise benefit from using a reduced diameter aft propeller.

Dittmar, James H.

Active control of propeller induced noise fields inside a flexible cylinder

An active noise control model has been evaluated for reducing aircraft interior noise. The structural noise transmission properties of an aircraft fuselage were modelled as a flexible cylinder excited by external acoustic dipoles simulating the noise produced by twin propellers. The amplitudes of an internal distribution of monopole control sources were determined such that the area-weighted mean square acoustic pressure was minimized in the propeller plane. The noise control model was evaluated at low frequencies corresponding to the blade passage frequency and first few harmonics of a typical turbo-prop aircraft. Interior noise reductions of 20 25 dB were achieved, over a substantial region of the cylindrical cross-section, with just a few monopole control sources. The most favorable interior noise reductions were achieved when the active noise control model was used in combination with propeller source phasing.

Lester, H. C.

Propagation of propeller tone noise through a fuselage boundary layer

In earlier experimental and analytical studies, it was found that the boundary layer on an aircraft could provide significant shielding from propeller noise at typical transport airplane cruise Mach numbers. In this paper a new three-dimensional theory is described that treats the combined effects of refraction and scattering by the fuselage and boundary layer. The complete wave field is solved by matching analytical expressions for the incident and scattered waves in the outer flow to a numerical solution in the boundary layer flow. The model for the incident waves is a near-field frequency-domain propeller source theory developed previously for free field studies. Calculations for an advanced turboprop (Prop-Fan) model flight test at 0.8 Mach number show a much smaller than expected pressure amplification at the noise directivity peak, strong boundary layer shielding in the forward quadrant, and shadowing around the fuselage. Results are presented showing the difference between fuselage surface and free-space noise predictions as a function of frequency and Mach number. Comparison of calculated and measured effects obtained in a Prop-Fan model flight test show good agreement, particularly near and aft of the plane of rotation at high cruise Mach number.

Hanson, D. B.

Aeroacoustic wind-tunnel tests of a light twin-boom general-aviation airplane with free or shrouded-pusher propellers

Tests were conducted in the Langley full-scale tunnel to determine the aerodynamic performance and acoustic characteristics of four different pusher-propeller configurations on a twin boom, general aviation airplane. The propellers included a 2-blade free propeller, two 3-blade shrouded propellers, and a 5-blade shrouded propeller. The tests were conducted for a range of airplane angles of attack from about 0 deg to 16 deg for test speeds from 0 to about 36 m/sec and for a range of propeller blade angles and rotation speeds. The free propeller provided the best aerodynamic propulsive performance. For forward flight conditions, the free propeller noise levels were lower than those of the shrouded propellers. In the static conditions the free propeller noise levels were as low as those for the shrouded propellers, except for the propeller in-plane noise where the shrouded propeller noise levels were lower.

Mclemore, H. C.

Reducing The Noise Impact of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Flight Control System Augmentation

The aim of this thesis is to explore methods to reduce the noise impact of unmanned aerial vehicles operating within acoustically sensitive environments by flight control systemaugmentation. Two methods are investigated and include: (i) reduction of sound generatedby vehicle speed control while flying along a nominal path and (ii) reduction of acousticexposure by vehicle path control while flying at a nominal speed. Both methods requireincorporation of an acoustic model into the flight control system as an additional controlobjective and an acoustic metric to characterize primary noise sources dependent on vehiclestate. An acoustic model was developed based on Gutin’s work to estimate propeller noise,both to estimate source noise and observer noise using two separate acoustic metrics. Thesemethods can potentially mitigate the noise impact of unmanned aerial systems operatingnear residential communities.The baseline flight control system of a representative aircraft was augmented with acontrol law to reduce propeller noise using feedback control of the commanded flight speeduntil an acoustic target was met, based on the propeller noise model. This control approachfocuses on modifying flight speed only, with no perturbation to the trajectory. Multipleflight simulations were performed and the results showed that integrating an acoustic metricinto the flight control system of an unmanned aerial system is possible and useful. A secondmethod to mitigate the effects of noise on an observer was also pursued to optimize a tra-jectory in order to avoid an acoustically sensitive region during the path planning process.After the propeller noise model was incorporated into the vehicle system, simulations showedthat it is possible to reduce the noise impact on an observer through an optimization of thetrajectory with no perturbation to the flight speed.

Matthew B Galles

An evaluation of a simplified near field noise model for supersonic helical tip speed propellers

Existing propeller noise models are versatile and complex but require large computational times, therefore a simplified noise model that could be used to obtain quick noise estimates for these propellers was evaluated. This simplified noise model compared favorably with a complex model for a straight blade propeller and for swept propeller blades when the propeller sweep was properly considered. The simplified model can thus be used as an approximation to the complex model. Comparisons of either the complex or simplified noise models with the available noise data are not good for supersonic propeller helical tip speeds. By adjusting various constants in the simplified model, the noise estimates can be brought into the same range as the data at the propeller design point but the variation of the model with helical tip Mach number remains different than the data.

Dittmar, J. H.

Broadband noise of propellers and rotors

Three categories of rotor noise (discrete frequency noise, impulsive noise, and broadband noise) are described and a study made of broadband noise is reported. Broadband noise has a continuous spectrum and is caused by disturbances which are not precisely repeated at each blade revolution but are basically due to some sort of turbulence-blade interactions. Source mechanisms include: inflow turbulence noise, boundary layer trailing edge noise, tip vortex noise, and several uncommon mechanisms. Broadband noise analyses are reviewed and calculations based on various analyses are compared to each other and to some available experimental data. Several satisfactory analyses are discussed and their limitations are delineated. Twenty-two references are cited.

George, A. R.