Lifting and transport of Martian dust by the Ingenuity helicopter rotor downwash as observed by high-speed imaging from the Perseverance rover
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Mark T Lemmon↗
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The sound of a Martian dust devil
Dust devils (convective vortices loaded with dust) are common at the surface of Mars, particularly at Jezero crater, the landing site of the Perseverance rover. They are indicators of atmospheric turbulence and are an important lifting mechanism for the Martian dust cycle. Improving our understanding of dust lifting and atmospheric transport is key for accurate simulation of the dust cycle and for the prediction of dust storms, in addition to being important for future space exploration as grain impacts are implicated in the degradation of hardware on the surface of Mars. Here we describe the sound of a Martian dust devil as recorded by the SuperCam instrument on the Perseverance rover. The dust devil encounter was also simultaneously imaged by the Perseverance rover’s Navigation Camera and observed by several sensors in the Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer instrument. Combining these unique multi-sensorial data with modelling, we show that the dust devil was around 25 m large, at least 118 m tall, and passed directly over the rover travelling at approximately 5 m s –1 . Acoustic signals of grain impacts recorded during the vortex encounter provide quantitative information about the number density of particles in the vortex. The sound of a Martian dust devil was inaccessible until SuperCam microphone recordings. This chance dust devil encounter demonstrates the potential of acoustic data for resolving the rapid wind structure of the Martian atmosphere and for directly quantifying wind-blown grain fluxes on Mars.
54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
Actuator and Motor Control End-to-End V&V on the Mars 2020 Rover
The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is the most advanced robotic exploration system ever sent to another planet. To support the complex scientific and mobility needs of the mission, the rover utilizes 33 actuators, three multi-degree-of-freedom force-torque sensors, fifteen single or dual-speed resolvers, two solenoid valves, and twelve contact switches. The control for these actuators and sensors is achieved by several levels of flight software, coordinated between two computers with varying bandwidth control loops. Furthermore, the actuators and sensors were integrated into multiple larger robotic mechanisms that were delivered by different organizations at various points in the Integration and Test (I&T) timeline. All of this created a very complex Verification and Validation (V&V) scenario involving multiple subsystems and teams, several hardware and software testbeds with varying levels of fidelity, and significant systems engineering to ensure the overall I&T schedule could be maintained while ensuring system hardware safety.This paper details the integrated V&V effort across multiple teams and venues to provide full coverage of all necessary functionality, performance, and fault protection. First, it provides an overview of how the V&V campaign was subdivided among teams and venues and provides descriptions of the various hardware configurations used to support the testing. The Mars 2020 implementation of the plan incorporates many of the lessons learned from Mars Science Laboratory’s test campaign, and these value-added modifications are discussed here. Also included in this section is the system-level environmental testing approach used for mechanisms. Second, the paper describes the phased approach used by the teams to support new hardware and software deliveries to testbed and Systems I&T. In this approach the test campaign was built upon higher-level mechanism needs for performance, functionality, and safety at specific times in the campaign. Finally, the paper discusses lessons learned from the V&V campaign that should be applied to future large-scale motion control testing efforts.
Borne, Davis↗
How do we get robots to take self-portraits on Mars? – Perseverance-Ingenuity and Curiosity selfies
The Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater,Mars, on 18 February 2021. It carried with it a technologydemonstration, the Ingenuity helicopter, which hasdemonstrated the first controlled, powered flight on anotherplanet. This paper describes how an iconic, April 2021 imageof the Perseverance rover with the Ingenuity helicopter wasdesigned and executed as the rover was getting ready todeploy the helicopter. WATSON is a camera mounted at theend of the rover’s robotic arm and was used to acquire theself-portrait. WATSON is designed to take close up picturesof rocks and regolith on Mars but can also provide views ofthe terrain. A single image covers a small portion of thescene. In order to a create a mosaic covering the full roverand helicopter, 62 WATSON images were acquired. To allowthe images to be mosaicked together, the camera needs to bekept in the same spot. The robotic arm has five degrees offreedom for motion; small changes in orientation can requiresignificant repositioning of the robotic arm joints. Todocument this, a movie of the arm motion was acquired bythe rover’s mast-mounted left navigation camera pointed atthe WATSON and robotic arm while it was simultaneouslymoving to acquire the selfie. For the first time, we alsocaptured the sound of the arm motion as it was acquiring theselfie. In the case of the Perseverance selfie with the Ingenuity helicopter, we also had to think about how toposition the rover with respect to the helicopter and fit theselfie acquisition into the helicopter prime mission timeline.This paper also describes the history of NASA Mars roverselfies.
Beegle, Luther↗
Hover and Forward Flight Performance Modeling of the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter
In 2015, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory partnered with Ames Research Center, Langley Research Center, and AeroVironment to develop Ingenuity, a small coaxial helicopter capable of flying within Mars’ unique atmospheric conditions. Ingenuity was successfully deployed from its protective shroud on the underside of the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover and has flown 17 flights on Mars as of December 2021. A number of rotorcraft analysis tools were utilized, and a series of experimental tests were performed to ready Ingenuity for its launch with the Perseverance Rover in July 2020. In this paper, RotCFD, a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes flow solver, is used to model Ingenuity in hover and forward flight for the purposes of validating tools to aid in the development of a future generation of Mars rotorcraft. The results from the RotCFD modeling are benchmarked against results from hover performance tests of the Ingenuity prototype in the 25-Foot Space Simulator at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and are also compared to hover and forward flight predictions made by CAMRAD II, a well-known comprehensive rotorcraft analysis code. Surrogate performance models are trained to obtain a set of trimmed rotor settings for Ingenuity at different forward flight speeds, which are then used as inputs for the RotCFD forward flight simulations. Additionally, a study of the airframe-rotor interaction and a study of the aerodynamics of the individual airframe components of Ingenuity in forward flight are performed. Finally, to better understand performance predictions by RotCFD and CAMRAD II, a study is conducted on how sectional angles of attack in each code vary with radial station and azimuth.
Hover↗
Limits on Runoff Episode Duration for Early Mars: Integrating Lake Hydrology and Climate Models
Fluvio-lacustrine features on the martian surface attest to a climate that was radically different in the past. Since climate models have difficulty sustaining a liquid hydrosphere at the surface, multiple cycles of runoff episodes may have characterized the ancient Mars climate. A fundamental question thus remains: what was the duration of these runoff-producing episodes? Here we use morphometric measurements from newly identified coupled lake systems, containing both an open- and a closed-basin lake (n=7). We combined hydrological balances with precipitation outputs from climate models, and found that breaching runoff episodes likely lasted 102−105yr; other episodes may have been shorter but could not be longer. Runoff episode durations are model-dependent and spatiallyvariable, and no27climate model scenario can satisfy a unique duration for all coupled systems. In the near future, these quantitative constraints on early Mars lake persistence may be tested through in situ observations from Perseverance rover. Plain Language Summary Ancient river and lake beds on the martian surface point to a climate that was radically different in the past, unlike the dry, cold desert that Mars is today. It experienced significant liquid water flowing across the surface (i.e., ‘runoff’) and hosted long-lived bodies of water (lakes and seas). However, scientists that generate models to simulate the ancient Mars climate have difficulty sustaining this proposed liquid water cycle at the surface. One possible hypothesis is that multiple cycles of individual liquid water episodes may have characterized the ancient martian climate (i.e. runoff episodes). A fundamental question thus remains: what was the duration of these individual runoff-producing episodes? Here we use an approach that takes advantage of unique martian lake system, ‘coupled’ lake systems, and their shapes. We combined these measurements with precipitation results from previous climate models, and found that runoff episodes likely lasted 100-10,000 years, requiring a global climate mechanism that generated repeated cycles of this duration. Ultimately, our results can be tested through observations made by NASA’s Perseverance rover, shedding light on the uninterrupted duration of surface water on Mars and its potential to host life in the past.
Gaia Stucky de Quay↗
First-results from the Perseverance SHERLOC Investigation: Aqueous Alteration Processes and Implications for Organic Geochemistry in Jezero Crater, Mars
The Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater, a site selected to fulfill the Mars-2020 mission goals of characterizing the geology of habitable environments and searching for signs of life while collecting samples for return to Earth [1]. Jezero hosted an open-basin lake during the late Noachian/early Hesperian (~3.7 Ga) [1-2], has units associated with the largest carbonate deposit identified on Mars [3-4], and has a well-preserved delta with clay and carbonate-bearing sediments, well-suited to preservation of organics [1,3-4]. Investigating the nature of organics and aqueous environments within their geologic con-text allows us to understand important aqueous processes and determine habitability within Jezero crater. Previous in situ landed measurements of organics could not resolve their spatial and mineralogical con-text [5-6]. Although Martian meteorites lack geological context, the spatial distribution of organic compounds in Martian meteorites have allowed recognition of an association between aqueous processes and organics [7-8]. Here, we show for the first time in-situ associations between carbonate-forming ultramafic alteration process, later stage aqueous sulfate and perchlorate formation, and organics on the Martian surface. Methodology and geological context: We use the Perseverance rover’s SHERLOC instrument (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Lumines-ence of Organics and Chemicals), a deep-ultraviolet fluorescence and Raman scattering spectrometer capable of mapping the organic and mineral composition with a spatial resolution of 100 μm resolution to report the presence of organics and aqueously formed minerals at Jezero crater [9]. These spectral detections were compared with co-located images obtained with the autofocus context imager (ACI) and the WATSON camera for textural analysis [9]. As of writing, the Per-severance rover has abraded five targets that were measured with the SHERLOC instrument. The five targets are located in two different orbitally-identified geological units within the floor of Jezero crater; the Crater Floor Fractured Rough unit (CF-Fr) and the Séítah region within the Crater Floor Fractured 1 unit (CF-F1) [10]. In orbital infrared spectroscopic data, the CF-Fr unit is associated with pyroxene spectral signatures and minor alteration, while the Séítah region is associated with olivine and minor Mg-rich carbonates and clays [3-4,10]. Carbonation of ultramafic protolith recorded within Jezero crater: All scans of abraded targets within the Séítah region reveal strong peaks at 1080–1090 cm−1 consistent with carbonate and peak singlets or doublets at 820–840 cm−1 attributed to olivine (Fig. 1), consistent with orbital infrared observations. Our detailed micron-scale petrographic and spectroscopic evidence shows that these carbonates formed through carbonation of an ultramafic protolith. The supporting observations include: (1) Carbonate cation compositions match those of olivine, suggesting mixed Fe- and Mg-olivine gave rise to mixed Fe- and Mg-carbonates, similar to observations of ultramafic systems on Earth and within Martian meteorites [3-4,7-8]. (2) The ob-served carbonates co-occur with hydrated materials, gypsum, and potentially aqueously-formed phases, amorphous silicates and phosphate. (3) The spectral and textural variation of olivine and carbonate dominated zones and olivine-carbonate mixtures within both primary grains and interstitial zones are expected for carbonated ultramafic protoliths. (4) These mineral associations and textures closely resemble those observed within the ALH84001 and Nakhlite meteorites attributed to olivine carbonation on Mars [6-7]. Taken together, micron-scale SHERLOC documentation of these phenomena bridge previous orbital and meteorite observations and demonstrate in-situ regionally extensive (~106 km2) ultramafic alteration resulting in geo-logical deposition of carbonates. Furthermore, we observe that olivine carbonation was involved in preserving and possibly synthesizing organics, which makes this environment potentially habitable, as previously suggested in [1,3-4] (Fig. 1). Late-stage aqueous perchlorate and sulfate in Jezero crater: An abrasion target within the CF-Fr unit contains combinations of high intensity 950-955 cm−1 peaks and minor 1090-1095 cm−1 and 1150-1155 cm−1 peaks that are spectral fits to anhydrous perchlorate (Fig. 1). Some spectra show a combination of 950-955 cm−1 peaks with equally strong 1010-1020 cm−1 peaks, low intensity broad features at 1120 cm−1, and occasional broad 3450 cm−1 hydration (-OH) features, indicating a mixture of Ca-sulfate and perchlorate that is minimally hydrated (Fig. 1). The detections of per-chlorates within Jezero crater differ from previous measurements (e.g. Phoenix lander, Curiosity rover, Tissint meteorite [7,11]) because they are observed to be intimately related to aqueous processes including sulfate formation, they present as a secondary white void-fill occurring within the interior of the rock, and they are found to likely be Na-perchlorate. implications for their formation: Three different types of organics embedded within three different lithologies were observed within the abraded targets. Organics associated with low intensity ~340 nm fluorescence were widespread within targets with no apparent association to particular minerals (Fig. 1). Organics associated with ~305 nm and ~275 nm fluorescence correlated with sulfates within the Bellegarde target in the CF-Fr unit, while organics associated with high intensity ~340 nm fluorescence correlated with carbonate, phosphate, and amorphous silicate mixtures within the Garde target in the Séítah region (Fig. 1). Although assignment of fluorescence signatures to specific organic compounds is not conclusive, ~340 nm fluorescence is generally more consistent with 2-ring aromatic organics, ~275 nm fluorescence is more consistent with 1-ring aromatic organics, and ~305 nm fluorescence can be created by either 2- or 1-ring aromatics [12]. These observations indicate that the strongest fluorescence signatures interpreted as organics were found in materials associated with aqueous processes, i.e. sulfate- and carbonate-bearing materials, suggesting both brines and ultramafic carbonation aqueous environments were capable of preserving organics on ancient Mars. In Martian meteorites, simple aromatic organics proposed to have been synthesized through aqueous processes can be found within minerals associated with olivine carbonation and in spatial association with perchlorate and sulfate materials [7-8], similar to SHERLOC observations. Hence, we advance an abiotic aqueous synthesis origin for the organics although we cannot rule out the presence of organics from meteoritic in-fall or putative organic biosignatures. Detailed analyses will be required upon return of these materials to Earth.
E L Scheller↗
Designing a Supersonic Parachute for the Perseverance Mars Rover
No abstract provided
O'Farrell, Clara↗
Designing a Supersonic Parachute for the Perseverance Mars Rover
No abstract provided
O'Farrell, Clara↗
Terrain Relative Navigation for Safe Landing of the Perseverance Mars Rover
No abstract provided
Johnson, Andrew E↗
Electromagnetic Compatibility Test and Analysis Campaign of NASA's Mars 2020 Rover Final Submission
NASA's Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover—with a launch window opening July 2020, and landing expected February 2021—has mission objectives to look for evidence of habitability, seek biosignatures of past life, collect and cache samples for possible future return to Earth, and prepare for future human missions to Mars. The Rover platform is similar to the previous Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) “Curiosity” rover that landed in 2012 but contains a new suite of scientific instruments and upgrades to existing functionality: seven new and/or upgraded scientific payloads, an upgraded arm and sampling system, and a Helicopter demonstration. These changes—along with new efficiency goals to operate more Rover subsystems concurrently and thus collect more science—presented new electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) challenges. In this paper, we will describe the campaign to ensure Mars 2020 mission success from an electromagnetic environment perspective: 1) confirming existing MSL heritage subsystems and EMC requirements were compatible with the new Mars 2020 mission objectives, 2) engaging with engineers and scientists early in the project to identify and evaluate risks before hardware assembly and performing ambitious risk reduction tests, 3) undertaking a comprehensive subsystem qualification test program based on tailored MIL-STD-461F requirements, occasionally leading to redesign, 4) synthesizing the data collected to perform detailed analyses toward the goal of making risk-informed decisions at a system level. The spacecraft successfully completed all three planned system level tests, demonstrating self-compatibility with minimal impact to operations from electromagn
Gonzales, Edward C↗
Boron adsorption in clay minerals: Implications for martian groundwater chemistry and boron on Mars
Boron has been detected on Mars in calcium-sulfate veins found within clay mineral rich rocks on Mars by the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover using Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) analysis. Borates play a vital role in stabilizing ribose on Earth and has been suggested as a key requirement for life. Borate ions readily adsorb to phyllosilicate clay minerals. The discovery of boron on Mars in proximity to phyllosilicate-bearing bedrock may have strong implications for potential past prebiotic conditions on Mars. In this study we generated a suite of clay minerals with adsorbed borate, including both typical terrestrial clay minerals (montmorillonite) and Mars-analog clay minerals (nontronite, saponite, griffithite), to understand controls on borate adsorption and to analyze with LIBS to compare with MSL data. Clay minerals were subjected to mineralogical and chemical analysis before and after adsorption. Adsorption analysis revealed that the Mars analog clay minerals adsorbed less boron than terrestrial counterparts, but within comparable amounts to those detected on Mars and in meteorites. Post-adsorption analysis by X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed slight changes in the interlayer spacing of many of the clay minerals. Based on the adsorption analysis of the Mars-analog clay minerals, phyllosilicate-bearing bedrock in Gale crater may contain up to 90-110 ppm B. A series of borate-enriched samples were created for analysis of LIBS spectra from ChemCam on the Curiosity rover and SuperCam on the Perseverance Rover. Finally, the results of this study may provide insight into martian groundwater geochemistry processes and the mobility of a key molecule connected with life.
58 GEOSCIENCES↗
Powering Perseverance
Video describing the RTG for the Mars Perseverance rover and INL's role in preparing for the mission.
99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests
The SuperCam instrument suite provides the Mars 2020 rover, Perseverance, with a number of versatile remote-sensing techniques that can be used at long distance as well as within the robotic-arm workspace. These include laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), remote time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopies, and visible and infrared (VISIR; separately referred to as VIS and IR) reflectance spectroscopy. A remote micro-imager (RMI) provides high-resolution color context imaging, and a microphone can be used as a stand-alone tool for environmental studies or to determine physical properties of rocks and soils from shock waves of laser-produced plasmas. SuperCam is built in three parts: The mast unit (MU), consisting of the laser, telescope, RMI, IR spectrometer, and associated electronics, is described in a companion paper. The on-board calibration targets are described in another companion paper. Here we describe SuperCam’s body unit (BU) and testing of the integrated instrument. The BU, mounted inside the rover body, receives light from the MU via a 5.8 m optical fiber. The light is split into three wavelength bands by a demultiplexer, and is routed via fiber bundles to three optical spectrometers, two of which (UV and violet; 245–340 and 385–465 nm) are crossed Czerny-Turner reflection spectrometers, nearly identical to their counterparts on ChemCam. The third is a high-efficiency transmission spectrometer containing an optical intensifier capable of gating exposures to 100 ns or longer, with variable delay times relative to the laser pulse. This spectrometer covers 535–853 nm ( $105\text{--}7070~\text{cm}^{-1}$ Raman shift relative to the 532 nm green laser beam) with $12~\text{cm}^{-1}$ full-width at half-maximum peak resolution in the Raman fingerprint region. The BU electronics boards interface with the rover and control the instrument, returning data to the rover. Thermal systems maintain a warm temperature during cruise to Mars to avoid contamination on the optics, and cool the detectors during operations on Mars.Results obtained with the integrated instrument demonstrate its capabilities for LIBS, for which a library of 332 standards was developed. Examples of Raman and VISIR spectroscopy are shown, demonstrating clear mineral identification with both techniques. Luminescence spectra demonstrate the utility of having both spectral and temporal dimensions. Finally, RMI and microphone tests on the rover demonstrate the capabilities of these subsystems as well.
47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
Measurements of sound propagation in Mars' lower atmosphere
Acoustics has become extraterrestrial and Mars provides a new natural laboratory for testing sound propagation models compared to those ones on Earth. Owing to the unique combination of a microphone and two sound sources, the Ingenuity helicopter and the SuperCam laser-induced sparks, the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover payload enables the in situ characterization of unique sound propagation properties of the low-pressure CO 2 -dominated Mars atmosphere. In this study, we show that atmospheric turbulence is responsible for a large variability in the sound amplitudes from laser-induced sparks. This variability follows the diurnal pattern of turbulence. In addition, acoustic measurements acquired over one Martian year reveal a variation of the sound intensity by a factor of 1.8 from a constant source due to the seasonal cycle of pressure and temperature that significantly modifies the acoustic impedance and shock-wave formation. Finally, we show that the evolution of the Ingenuity tones and laser spark amplitudes with distance is consistent with one of the existing sound absorption models, which is a key parameter for numerical simulations applied to geophysical experiments on CO 2 -rich atmospheres. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of sound propagation to interrogate the Mars environment and will therefore help in the design of future acoustic-based experiments for Mars or other planetary atmospheres such as Venus and Titan.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗