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DOE OSTI2015

Quantifying Solar Cell Cracks in Photovoltaic Modules by Electroluminescence Imaging

This article proposes a method for quantifying the percentage of partially and totally disconnected solar cell cracks by analyzing electroluminescence images of the photovoltaic module taken under high- and low-current forward bias. The method is based on the analysis of the module's electroluminescence intensity distribution, applied at module and cell level. These concepts are demonstrated on a crystalline silicon photovoltaic module that was subjected to several rounds of mechanical loading and humidity-freeze cycling, causing increasing levels of solar cell cracks. The proposed method can be used as a diagnostic tool to rate cell damage or quality of modules after transportation. Moreover, the method can be automated and used in quality control for module manufacturers, installers, or as a diagnostic tool by plant operators and diagnostic service providers.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2019

Book: Advanced Nano and Micro materials for Photovoltaics: future and emerging technologies, Chapter 11: "Multifunctional Optical Coatings and Light Management for Photovoltaics"

In this chapter, we present a discussion of three main topics in coatings and light management for PV. First, we will cover the basic principles behind light management and broadly discuss approaches that can be used to mitigate reflective losses. Additionally, we build further on this topic by exploring the specific antireflection techniques used by PV glass and module manufacturers. Next, we explore antisoiling coatings, a relatively understudied area until recently. We comment on the distinctly different approaches to antisoiling coatings currently being explored by the PV community and the pros and cons of each. In addition, antisoiling coatings can also serve as antireflective coatings, providing a route to multifunctional coatings. Finally, we comment briefly on possible rich areas for new research efforts that we believe will provide a meaningful impact on solar module efficiency, reliability, and durability.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2015

Development of ITM oxygen technology for integration in IGCC and other advanced power generation

Ion Transport Membrane (ITM) technology is based on the oxygen-ion-conducting properties of certain mixed-metal oxide ceramic materials that can separate oxygen from an oxygen-containing gas, such as air, under a suitable driving force. The “ITM Oxygen” air separation system that results from the use of such ceramic membranes produces a hot, pure oxygen stream and a hot, pressurized, oxygen-depleted stream from which significant amounts of energy can be extracted. Accordingly, the technology integrates well with other high-temperature processes, including power generation. Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., the Recipient, in conjunction with a dozen subcontractors, developed ITM Oxygen technology under this five-phase Cooperative Agreement from the laboratory bench scale to implementation in a pilot plant capable of producing power and 100 tons per day (TPD) of purified oxygen. A commercial-scale membrane module manufacturing facility (the “CerFab”), sized to support a conceptual 2000 TPD ITM Oxygen Development Facility (ODF), was also established and operated under this Agreement. In the course of this work, the team developed prototype ceramic production processes and a robust planar ceramic membrane architecture based on a novel ceramic compound capable of high oxygen fluxes. The concept and feasibility of the technology was thoroughly established through laboratory pilot-scale operations testing commercial-scale membrane modules run under industrial operating conditions with compelling lifetime and reliability performance that supported further scale-up. Auxiliary systems, including contaminant mitigation, process controls, heat exchange, turbo-machinery, combustion, and membrane pressure vessels were extensively investigated and developed. The Recipient and subcontractors developed efficient process cycles that co-produce oxygen and power based on compact, low-cost ITMs. Process economics assessments show significant benefits relative to state-of-the-art cryogenic air separation technology in energy-intensive applications such as IGCC with and without carbon capture.

Armstrong, Phillip A.↗

DOE OSTI2012

Examination of a Junction-Box Adhesion Test for Use in Photovoltaic Module Qualification: Preprint

Engineering robust adhesion of the junction-box (j-box) is a hurdle typically encountered by photovoltaic (PV) module manufacturers during product development. There are historical incidences of adverse effects (e.g., fires) caused when the j-box/adhesive/module system has failed in the field. The addition of a weight to the j-box during the 'damp heat' IEC qualification test is proposed toverify the basic robustness of its adhesion system. The details of the proposed test will be described, in addition to the preliminary results obtained using representative materials and components. The described discovery experiments examine moisture-cured silicone, foam tape, and hot-melt adhesives used in conjunction with PET or glass module 'substrates.' To be able to interpret the results,a set of material-level characterizations was performed, including thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and dynamic mechanical analysis. PV j-boxes were adhered to a substrate, loaded with a prescribed weight, and then placed inside an environmental chamber (at 85C, 85% relative humidity). Some systems did not remain attached through the discovery experiments. Observedfailure modes include delamination (at the j-box/adhesive or adhesive/substrate interface) and phase change/creep. The results are discussed in the context of the application requirements, in addition to the plan for the formal experiment supporting the proposed modification to the qualification test.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2012

Examination of a Junction-Box Adhesion Test for Use in Photovoltaic Module Qualification (Presentation)

Engineering robust adhesion of the junction-box (j-box) is a hurdle typically encountered by photovoltaic (PV) module manufacturers during product development. There are historical incidences of adverse effects (e.g., fires) caused when the j-box/adhesive/module system has failed in the field. The addition of a weight to the j-box during the 'damp heat' IEC qualification test is proposed to verify the basic robustness of its adhesion system. The details of the proposed test will be described, in addition to the preliminary results obtained using representative materials and components. The described discovery experiments examine moisture-cured silicone, foam tape, and hot-melt adhesives used in conjunction with PET or glass module 'substrates.' To be able to interpret the results, a set of material-level characterizations was performed, including thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and dynamic mechanical analysis. PV j-boxes were adhered to a substrate, loaded with a prescribed weight, and then placed inside an environmental chamber (at 85C, 85% relative humidity). Some systems did not remain attached through the discovery experiments. Observed failure modes include delamination (at the j-box/adhesive or adhesive/substrate interface) and phase change/creep. The results are discussed in the context of the application requirements, in addition to the plan for the formal experiment supporting the proposed modification to the qualification test.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Development of Integrated Mechanical Pods

This presentation highlights early wins, updated progress, and upcoming developments on ‘national-scale shared development platform’ for rapid prototyping, testing and validation of various integrated Mechanical Pod solutions and form factors. Such pod solutions consist of a set of all-electric heat pump mechanical equipment that have integrated functionalities through built-in controls, with heating, cooling, hot water, ventilation (including energy recovery), electrical management, and battery storage within a single package. The presentation draws inspiration from the success of bathroom pods in the US modular construction industry, UK’s efforts with unitizing mechanical systems as ‘utility cupboards’, and VEIC’s early wins in design-build of all-electric Mechanical Pod solutions in Vermont. The presentation includes researchers and partners involved with NREL in Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA), Virtual Design and Construction (VDC), and digital twin based process optimization modeling of integrated Mechanical Pod solutions. The presentation aims to highlight early wins from such a platform and how various physical and virtual tools are currently being employed as part of NREL’s ongoing multi-year project funded by US DOE. Streamlined procurement, coordination, installation, and O&M of Mechanical Pods such that the majority of work is delegated to the off-site modular factory implies monetary savings. Such a seemingly basic shift in location of the construction process leads to great reduction in complexity, first cost, lead time, and waste, and greater opportunities for innovative compartmentalization and integration of mechanical systems appropriately sized for each apartment or hotel guest room. However, past studies on unitized combination systems show that high installation costs, maintenance issues, challenges with system integration, limitations in existing electrical infrastructure, and lack of architecturally appealing solutions are key barriers. NREL and partners aim to address key barriers through DfMA approach, rapid prototyping and testing, and digital twin process optimization modeling. The presentation is also a call for interested entities to partner with NREL as part of the national-scale development platform, help drive both product and process innovation, and encourage open source sharing of learnings. Learning objectives include (1) learn about the vision of national-scale shared development platform for process-product innovation on integrated mechanical pod solutions and how to get involved, (2) gain an understanding of the components of an all-electric, high performance home, design characteristics and equipment included in an all-electric mechanical pod, integration of mechanical systems within a modular factories’ assembly line, and the system’s commissioning, operation and maintenance. The pre-planning and coordination with the factory and sub-contractors are also highlighted, (3) gain an understanding of using process modeling tools to quantify resource-constrained performance of operations (such as integration of energy efficiency strategies) to manufacture modules of varying design, (4) gain insights on virtual design, rapid prototyping, and emulated testing of various form factors across different climatic conditions. The need for such preliminary testing with open source sharing of learnings will also be highlighted.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

DOE OSTI2014

Trial Run of a Junction-Box Attachment Test for Use in Photovoltaic Module Qualification (Presentation)

Engineering robust adhesion of the junction-box (j-box) is a hurdle typically encountered by photovoltaic (PV) module manufacturers during product development and manufacturing process control. There are historical incidences of adverse effects (e.g., fires), caused when the j-box/adhesive/module system has failed in the field. The addition of a weight to the j-box during the 'damp-heat', 'thermal-cycle', or 'creep' tests within the IEC qualification protocol is proposed to verify the basic robustness of the adhesion system. The details of the proposed test are described, in addition to a trial run of the test procedure. The described experiments examine 4 moisture-cured silicones, 4 foam tapes, and a hot-melt adhesive used in conjunction with glass, KPE, THV, and TPE substrates. For the purpose of validating the experiment, j-boxes were adhered to a substrate, loaded with a prescribed weight, and then subjected to aging. The replicate mock-modules were aged in an environmental chamber (at 85 deg C/85% relative humidity for 1000 hours; then 100 degrees C/<10% relative humidity for 200 hours) or fielded in Golden, Miami, and Phoenix for 1 year. Attachment strength tests, including pluck and shear test geometries, were also performed on smaller component specimens.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2014

Trial-Run of a Junction-Box Attachment Test for Use in Photovoltaic Module Qualification: Preprint

Engineering robust adhesion of the junction box (j-box) is a hurdle typically encountered by photovoltaic module manufacturers during product development and manufacturing process control. There are historical incidences of adverse effects (e.g., fires) caused when the j-box/adhesive/module system has failed in the field. The addition of a weight to the j-box during the 'damp-heat,' 'thermal-cycle,' or 'creep' tests within the IEC qualification protocol is proposed to verify the basic robustness of the adhesion system. The details of the proposed test are described, in addition to a trial-run of the test procedure. The described experiments examine four moisture-cured silicones, four foam tapes, and a hot-melt adhesive used in conjunction with glass, KPE, THV, and TPE substrates. For the purpose of validating the experiment, j-boxes were adhered to a substrate, loaded with a prescribed weight, and then subjected to aging. The replicate mock-modules were aged in an environmental chamber (at 85 degrees C/85% relative humidity for 1000 hours; then 100 degrees C/<10% relative humidity for 200 hours) or fielded in Golden (CO), Miami (FL), and Phoenix (AZ) for one year. Attachment strength tests, including pluck and shear test geometries, were also performed on smaller component specimens.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Characterizing photovoltaic backsheet adhesion degradation using the wedge and single cantilever beam tests, Part I: Field Modules

Photovoltaic backsheets are exposed to harsh outdoor weathering conditions throughout their service lives that can compromise their protective function, through adhesive debonding between their constituent layers and between the backsheet and the module. We report a large-scale study on adhesive degradation was conducted on 37 field-exposed modules, that spanned 19 different module manufacturers, that were deployed among six Köppen–Geiger climatic zones, and that were fielded between 0 and 28 years. Six outer layer polymer classes were identified among the backsheets: polyamide (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl fluoride (PVF), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), fluoroethylene vinyl ether copolymer (FEVE), and tetrafluoroethylene hexafluoropropylene vinylidene fluoride copolymer (THV). Two adhesion tests were used to measure the adhesive strength: the wedge test and the width-tapered single-cantilever beam (SCB) test. Adhesion energies were compared across exposure time and Köppen–Geiger climatic zone. Many of the PET-, PVF-, and PVDF-based backsheets experienced degradation of the adhesive layer between the backsheet outer and core layers. A consistent trend of decreasing adhesion energy with exposure time was observed in five out of the six backsheet types. Trends among adhesion energy and climatic zone, while expected, were not observed, possibly due to broad ranges in temperature, humidity, and precipitation defining Köppen–Geiger climatic zones. The cantilever beam measurements produced an upper cutoff of approximately 100 J/m 2 , above which no modules exhibited field delamination. The results are part of a two-part study quantifying adhesion in both field-weathered and indoor-exposed PV backsheets.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

System Dynamics of Polysilicon for Solar Photovoltaics: A Framework for Investigating the Energy Security of Renewable Energy Supply Chains

Renewable energy, produced with widely available low-cost energy resources, is often included as a component of national strategies to address energy security and sustainability. Market and political forces cannot disrupt the sun or wind, unlike oil and gas supplies. However, the cost of renewable energy is highly dependent on technologies manufactured through global supply chains in leading manufacturing countries. The countries that contribute to the global supply chains may take actions that, directly or indirectly, influence global access to materials and components. For example, high-purity polysilicon, a key material in solar photovoltaics, has experienced significant price fluctuations, affecting the manufacturing capacity and cost of both polysilicon and solar panels. This study has developed and validated an initial system dynamics framework to gain insights into global trade in polysilicon. The model represents an initial framework for exploration. Three regions were modeled-China, the United States, and the rest of the world - for a range of trade scenarios to understand the impacts of import duties and non-price drivers on the relative volumes of imports and domestic supply. The model was validated with the historical case of China imposing an import duty on polysilicon from the United States, the European Union, and South Korea, which altered the regional flows of polysilicon - in terms of imports, exports, and domestic production-to varying degrees. As expected, the model tracked how regional demand shares and influx volumes decrease as a duty on a region increases. Using 2016 as a reference point, in the scenarios examined for U.S. exports to China, each 10% increase in the import duty results in a 40% decrease in import volume. The model also indicates that, under the scenarios investigated, once a duty has been imposed on a region, the demand share from that region declines and does not achieve pre-duty levels, even as global demand increases. Adding additional countries and other components in the photovoltaic supply chain (panels, cells, wafers) to this model could enable policymakers to better understand the relative impact of trade measures across the entire photovoltaic module manufacturing supply chain and the conditions that encourage industry evolution and competitiveness.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2016

Technology advances needed for photovoltaics to achieve widespread grid price parity: Widespread grid price parity for photovoltaics

To quantify the potential value of technological advances to the photovoltaics (PV) sector, this paper examines the impact of changes to key PV module and system parameters on the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). The parameters selected include module manufacturing cost, efficiency, degradation rate, and service lifetime. NREL's System Advisor Model (SAM) is used to calculate the lifecycle cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) for residential, commercial, and utility scale PV systems within the contiguous United States, with a focus on utility scale. Different technological pathways are illustrated that may achieve the Department of Energy's SunShot goal of PV electricity that is at grid price parity with conventional electricity sources. In addition, the impacts on the 2015 baseline LCOE due to changes to each parameter are shown. These results may be used to identify research directions with the greatest potential to impact the cost of PV electricity.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

High-Intensity UV Exposure for the Rapid Screening of Silicon Photovoltaic Architectures

Advanced Si photovoltaic architectures incorporate different materials and processing pathways that influence degradation modes. Ultraviolet-induced degradation (UVID) is an understudied degradation mode for advanced cell architectures and is of increasing concern to industry due to growing adoption of UV-transparent encapsulation and bifacial technologies. In order to adopt new and evolving technologies confidently, novel component materials and processing techniques must be evaluated and designed for long-term stability, in addition to the conventional design focus on efficiency. In this work, a study protocol framework is presented for the rapid screening of unencapsulated devices against UVID. Unencapsulated passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) and tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) devices were aged under different UV irradiance intensities and measured via conventional nondestructive electrical characterization methods to assess performance degradation. Based on the results, protocol efficacy and recommendations for further study are discussed. As a result, this work is part of a broader effort to develop rapid screening processes that cut across architectures and exposure conditions to aid module manufacturers in vetting new materials choices for long-term stability.

Accelerated exposure↗

DOE OSTI2013

Examination of an optical transmittance test for photovoltaic encapsulation materials

The optical transmittance of encapsulation materials is a key characteristic for their use in photovoltaic (PV) modules. Changes in transmittance with time in the field affect module performance, which may impact product warranties. Transmittance is important in product development, module manufacturing, and field power production (both immediate and long-term). Therefore, an international standard (IEC 62788-1-4) has recently been proposed by the Encapsulation Task-Group within the Working Group 2 (WG2) of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 82 (TC82) for the quantification of the optical performance of PV encapsulation materials. Existing standards, such as ASTM E903, are general and more appropriately applied to concentrated solar power than to PV. Starting from the optical transmittance measurement, the solar-weighted transmittance of photon irradiance, yellowness index (which may be used in aging studies to assess durability), and ultraviolet (UV) cut-off wavelength may all be determined using the proposed standard. The details of the proposed test are described. The results of a round-robin experiment (for five materials) conducted at seven laboratories to validate the test procedure using representative materials are also presented. For example, the Encapsulation Group actively explored the measurement requirements (wavelength range and resolution), the requirements for the spectrophotometer (including the integrating sphere and instrument accessories, such as a depolarizer), specimen requirements (choice of glass-superstrate and -substrate), and data analysis (relative to the light that may be used in the PV application). The round-robin experiment identified both intra- and inter-laboratory instrument precision and bias for five encapsulation materials (encompassing a range of transmittance and haze-formation characteristics).

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2015

DOE SunShot (FY15 Final Technical Report)

Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) manages four of the five PV Regional Test Centers (RTCs). This report reviews accomplishments made by the four Sandia-managed RTCs during FY2015 (October 1, 2014 to September 30, 2015) as well as some programmatic improvements that apply to all five sites. The report is structured by Site first then by Partner within each site followed by the Current and Potential Partner summary table, the New Business Process, and finally the Plan for FY16 and beyond. Since no official SOPO was ever agreed to for FY15, this report does not include reporting on specific milestones and go/no-go decisions. The RTCs validate new solar technologies and system configurations, demonstrating performance and reliability under field conditions over time. There are five sites representing a range of climate conditions (NREL manages the Colorado site). The RTCs provide technical assistance to solar companies in the US. This program has shifted its focus, along with the industry, from validation of large systems to more targeted studies of small systems designed to compare sub-arrays of different module technologies. In addition, the RTCs are actively seeking partners from both module manufacturers and balance-of-systems producers.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2013

Examination of an Optical Transmittance Test for Photovoltaic Encapsulation Materials (Presentation)

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Marrying Quality Assurance with Design Engineering - A Winning Partnership! But, a Cultural Divide?: Preprint

Investors would like to be confident that a PV plant will work as promised before investing large sums of money. Data showing that PV modules can withstand thousands of hours of accelerated testing are a comfort, but are not sufficient. An inability to be confident of every aspect of the system can motivate higher interest rates; high degradation or failure rates can substantially decrease the return on investment and the value of the plant for resale later on. In the end, a winning partnership is obtained when a carefully engineered, durable design is married with a robust quality management system and the marriage is extended across all parts of the value chain. However, this marriage is challenging because of the conventional cultural divide between design engineers and quality management specialists. This paper discusses the motivation for increased emphasis on quality assurance and describes three new standards that detail requirements for a higher level of quality assurance for 1) PV module manufacturing, 2) inverter and other balance-of-systems (BOS) manufacturing, and 3) control of the system installation and operation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the challenges and benefits of marrying the quality assurance program with further optimization of the PV system design.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2016

Manufacturing metrology for c-Si module reliability and durability Part II: Cell manufacturing

Not Available

Davis, Kristopher O.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Prefabricated Zero Ascend Omnispecies (ZAO) Modular Fish Passage Modules Using Advanced Manufacturing Techniques

The Zero Ascend Omnispecies (ZAO) fish passage attraction module “ZAO Attractor” is a novel system designed to facilitate upstream passage for a broad spectrum of fish species, with a particular focus on American shad and river herring (alewife and/or blueback herring). Combining the use of prefabricated, modular components with advanced manufacturing, the ZAO aims to provide a cost-effective and scalable solution for fish passage attractions across various hydropower sites. The system features a surface level entry, so fish do not need to climb. In addition, it is designed to be adjusted and repositioned to create the most effective attraction flows by managing the outflows from hydropower turbines. Budget Period 1 (BP1) focused on the design and modeling of the ZAO Attractor and demonstrated the engineering feasibility of a modular, prefabricated, hydrodynamically efficient structure with surface level entry and passage. It was discovered that there were limited published studies on the direct correlation between quantified flow patterns and fish attraction, emphasizing the need for controlled studies to observe and measure these effects. In Budget Period 2 (BP2), controlled studies with live fish were prioritized to address these complexities. In conclusion, the ZAO fish passage attraction module presents a promising approach to fish passage at hydropower stations, with the potential to balance environmental concerns with renewable energy development. However, further field validation and optimization are necessary to ensure its effectiveness and practicality in real-world applications.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗